D3.

3 Homeostasis
SL notes

Homeostasis – “staying the same”

• The ability to maintain a constant internal environment.

• Body temperature, blood pH, blood glucose concentration and blood osmotic
concentration are homeostatic variables in humans.
• These variables are kept within preset limits, despite fluctuations in external
environment.

Negative feedback and its importance in homeostasis

• Negative feedback refers to the return of a system to the original starting state.
• It is feedback that tends to counteract any deviation from equilibrium and promotes
stability.
• It returns the homeostatic variables to the set point from values above or below the
set point.
• This allows for continuity in body systems.
• For example, control of body temperature allows enzymes to work at their optimum,
and water balance maintains osmotic concentrations within safe limits.
• Positive feedback moves conditions further away from equilibrium/set point and so
would not restore the original conditions.

Regulation of blood glucose

• The cells in the body use glucose as an immediate energy source during respiration.
• As cells are continuously absorbing glucose from the blood, the body needs to
maintain a blood glucose level of 60–100 mg/100 cm3.
• If our blood glucose falls below 60 mg/100 cm3, hypoglycaemia sets in.
• This results in fainting, convulsions and sometimes coma.
• Abnormally high blood glucose results in hyperglycaemia, which leads to lower water
potential of blood plasma and removal of water from cells and tissues into blood.
Excess water is removed from the blood and excreted by the kidneys to maintain the
correct concentration of blood.
 • Body tends to be dehydrated and blood pressure cannot be maintained.
• Therefore it is important that blood glucose level is within set limits.

Regulation of blood glucose as an example of the role of hormones in homeostasis

• Two hormones, insulin and glucagon, are produced by the islets of Langerhans and are
responsible for maintaining and controlling blood glucose concentrations
• Insulin is produced and secreted by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in
response to rising blood glucose levels.
• It stimulates glucose uptake from the blood into the cells.
• Glucagon is produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in
response to decreasing glucose levels.
• It stimulates the liver to release stored glucose into the bloodstream.

The relationship between the pancreas and blood glucose levels is an important example of
homeostasis using negative feedback.
The opposing actions of glucagon and insulin keep the blood glucose level fluctuating within
a range.

If the blood glucose level rises above the normal range:

• Beta cells of the islets of Langerhans release insulin into the
bloodstream.
• Insulin promotes (mainly) cells of the liver, muscles and fat tissue to take up glucose
from the blood to decrease the blood glucose level.
• The glucose is stored as glycogen (glycogenesis) in the cells of muscle and liver, or as
fat in the cells of fat tissue, for later use.
• As the blood glucose levels decrease, the secretion of insulin also decreases.

If the blood glucose level falls below the normal range:

• Alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans release glucagon into the bloodstream.
• Glucagon promotes (mainly) the cells of liver and fat tissue to break down glycogen
(glycogenolysis) and lipids (gluconeogenesis) and release the glucose into the blood
until the level of blood glucose increases to the normal range.
 • As the blood glucose levels increase, the secretion of glucagon also decreases.

Physiological changes that form the basis of type 1 and type 2 diabetes

Type 1: Insulin-dependent or early onset diabetes

• In some individuals the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys the beta
cells in the pancreas.
• As a result, individuals with this autoimmune disorder are unable to produce insulin.
• Insufficient insulin production leads to chronically elevated levels of glucose in the
bloodstream – hyperglycaemia.
• Symptoms are constant thirst, undiminished hunger and excessive urination.
• Typically diagnosed in childhood or adolescence
• Individuals with the condition must manage their blood glucose levels through a
combination of insulin therapy, dietary modifications , regular blood glucose
monitoring and regular exercise.
Type 2: Insulin-independent or late-onset diabetes

• In some individuals, although insulin is produced and secreted into the blood, cells
stop responding to insulin and they are said to be ‘insulin resistant’.
• There is sufficient blood insulin, but insulin receptors on cells become defective.
• Symptoms are mild.
• Most of the time, type 2 diabetes can be reversed by moderate weight loss, regular
physical activity and a healthy diet.
Risk factors
Risk factors for type 1 diabetes – genes and viruses that cause an autoimmune response
where the immune system recognizes and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells of
the islets of Langerhans.
Risk factors of type 2 diabetes – being overweight or obese, age 40 or older, family history
of diabetes, high BP, low level of HDL or high level or triglycerides or being inactive.

Thermoregulation as an example of negative feedback control

• Involves controlling both heat loss across the surface of the body and heat
production within the body.
 • White adipose tissue forms an insulating barrier around the body preventing heat
loss.
• Brown adipose tissue metabolizes triglycerides without producing ATP, in the
mitochondria to emit heat by uncoupled respiration (usually breakdown of
monomers in mitochondria through aerobic respiration) releases ATP.
• Brown adipose cells have more mitochondria than white adipose cells making them
darker.
• This helps to generate sufficient heat to maintain body temperature in newborn
infants.

Role of thyroxin in thermoregulation

• The hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland.

• The pituitary gland releases thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) to stimulate the
thyroid gland.
• The thyroid gland produces a hormone called thyroxin.
• The primary role of thyroxin is to increase the metabolic rate of body cells, which will
result in more heat.
• The production of TSH is an example of a negative feedback loop.
• The release of TSH is decreased and stopped if the levels of thyroxin produced are
very high.
• When the body temperature increases, signals from peripheral and central
thermoreceptors stop the hypothalamus from producing TSH.

Negative feedback control of temperature

Temperature receptors in the skin and the brain send detect temperature change above or
below the set point.
They send electrical impulses to the hypothalamus which:
• Send impulses effectors- skin, liver and muscles
• Regulate blood flow from arteries to capillaries through vasoconstriction and
vasodilation.
Physiological changes when there is an increase in temperature

• Vasodilation of the arterioles close to the skin brings more blood to the surface of
the body.
• Blood carries heat to the body surface to increase heat loss via radiation.
• Muscles attached to the hair in the skin relax, so the hairs on the skin lie flat allowing
radiation of heat from the body.
• Sweat glands are activated to produce increased sweat, which evaporates from the
skin and cools the body.

Physiological changes when there is a decrease in temperature

• Arterioles supplying blood to the skin constrict, causing decreased blood flow to the
capillaries in the skin and decreased radiation of heat away from the body.
• Muscles in the skin contract to make the hairs on the skin stand up, trapping heat in
the layer of air between the skin and the hair.
• This increases the insulating effect of body hair.
• Sweat glands decrease sweat production.
• Skeletal muscles undergo repeated involuntary contractions, called shivering, which
generates heat to raise the body temperature.
• Metabolic activity in the liver increases, heating the body.

Mechanisms of human body temperature regulation

Behavioral responses to changes in temperature

• In cold conditions, the cerebrum initiates conscious behaviours like deciding to move
around to generate muscle heat, dress warmer, or stay indoors.
• In warm conditions conscious behaviours like seeking shade or air conditioning,
wearing light clothing and avoiding exercise helps to prevent overheating.