Chapter 2

Forecasting
vending machine:
 Lecture Outline

• Strategic Role of Forecasting in Supply Chain

Management
• Components of Forecasting Demand
• Time Series Methods
• Forecast Accuracy
• Time Series Forecasting Using Excel

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 Forecasting
• Predicting the future
• Qualitative forecast methods
• subjective
• Quantitative forecast methods
• based on mathematical formulas

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 Supply Chain Management
• Accurate forecasting determines inventory levels
in the supply chain
• Continuous replenishment
• supplier & customer share continuously updated data
• typically managed by the supplier
• reduces inventory for the company
• speeds customer delivery
• Variations of continuous replenishment
• quick response
• JIT (just-in-time)
• VMI (vendor-managed inventory)
• stockless inventory

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The Effect of Inaccurate Forecasting

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 Forecasting
• Quality Management
• Accurately forecasting customer demand is a key to
providing good quality service
• Strategic Planning
• Successful strategic planning requires accurate
forecasts of future products and markets

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 Types of Forecasting Methods
• Depend on
• time frame
• demand behavior
• causes of behavior

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 Time Frame
• Indicates how far into the future is forecast
• Short- to mid-range forecast
• typically encompasses the immediate future
• daily up to two years
• Long-range forecast
• usually encompasses a period of time longer than
two years

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 Demand Behavior
• Trend
• a gradual, long-term up or down movement of
demand
• Random variations
• movements in demand that do not follow a pattern
• Cycle
• an up-and-down repetitive movement in demand
• Seasonal pattern
• an up-and-down repetitive movement in demand
occurring periodically

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 Forms of Forecast Movement

Demand
Demand

Random
movement

Time Time
(a) Trend (b) Cycle

Demand
Demand

Time Time
(c) Seasonal pattern (d) Trend with seasonal pattern

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 Forecasting Methods
• Time series
• statistical techniques that use historical demand data
to predict future demand
• Regression methods
• attempt to develop a mathematical relationship
between demand and factors that cause its behavior
• Qualitative
• use management judgment, expertise, and opinion to
predict future demand

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 Qualitative Methods
• Management, marketing, purchasing, and
engineering are sources for internal qualitative
forecasts
• Delphi method
• involves soliciting forecasts about technological
advances from experts

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 Forecasting Process
1. Identify the 2. Collect historical 3. Plot data and identify
purpose of forecast data patterns

6. Check forecast 5. Develop/compute 4. Select a forecast

accuracy with one or forecast for period of model that seems
more measures historical data appropriate for data

7.
Is accuracy of No 8b. Select new
forecast forecast model or
acceptable? adjust parameters of
existing model
Yes
9. Adjust forecast based 10. Monitor results
8a. Forecast over
on additional qualitative and measure forecast
planning horizon
information and insight accuracy

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 Time Series
• Assume that what has occurred in the past will
continue to occur in the future
• Relate the forecast to only one factor - time
• Include
• moving average
• exponential smoothing
• linear trend line

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-14

 Moving Average
• Naive forecast
• demand in current period is used as next period’s
forecast
• Simple moving average
• uses average demand for a fixed sequence of periods
• stable demand with no pronounced behavioral
patterns
• Weighted moving average
• weights are assigned to most recent data

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-15

 Moving Average: Naïve Approach
ORDERS
MONTH PER MONTH FORECAST
Jan 120 -
Feb 90 120
Mar 100 90
Apr 75 100
May 110 75
June 50 110
July 75 50
Aug 130 75
Sept 110 130
Oct 90 110
Nov - 90

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-16

Simple Moving Average

n

i=1
Di
MAn =
n
where

n = number of periods in
the moving average
Di = demand in period i

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 3-month Simple Moving Average
ORDERS MOVING
MONTH PER MONTH AVERAGE 3

Jan 120 – 
i=1
Di
Feb 90 – MA3 =
Mar 100 – 3
Apr 75 103.3
May 110 88.3 90 + 110 + 130
June 50 95.0
= 3
July 75 78.3
Aug 130 78.3
= 110 orders for Nov
Sept 110 85.0
Oct 90 105.0
Nov - 110.0

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 5-month Simple Moving Average

ORDERS MOVING
MONTH PER MONTH AVERAGE 5

Jan 120 – 
i=1
Di
Feb 90 – MA5 =
Mar 100 – 5
Apr 75 –
May 110 – 90 + 110 + 130+75+50
= 5
June 50 99.0
July 75 85.0
Aug 130 82.0 = 91 orders for Nov
Sept 110 88.0
Oct 90 95.0
Nov - 91.0

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12-19

 Smoothing Effects
150 –

125 – 5-month

100 –
Orders

75 –

50 – 3-month

Actual
25 –

0– | | | | | | | | | | |
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov
Month

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 Weighted Moving Average
• Adjusts moving average method to more closely
reflect data fluctuations
n
WMAn =  Wi Di
i=1
where
Wi = the weight for period i,
between 0 and 100
percent
 Wi = 1.00

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Weighted Moving Average Example
MONTH WEIGHT DATA
August 17% 130
September 33% 110
October 50% 90
3
November Forecast WMA3 = 
i=1
Wi Di

= (0.50)(90) + (0.33)(110) + (0.17)(130)

= 103.4 orders

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 Exponential Smoothing
• Averaging method
• Weights most recent data more strongly
• Reacts more to recent changes
• Widely used, accurate method

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 Exponential Smoothing

Ft +1 =  Dt + (1 - )Ft
where:
Ft +1 = forecast for next period
Dt = actual demand for present period
Ft = previously determined forecast for
present period
= weighting factor, smoothing constant

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 Effect of Smoothing Constant

0.0    1.0
If  = 0.20, then Ft +1 = 0.20 Dt + 0.80 Ft

If  = 0, then Ft +1 = 0 Dt + 1 Ft = Ft
Forecast does not reflect recent data

If  = 1, then Ft +1 = 1 Dt + 0 Ft = Dt
Forecast based only on most recent data

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 Exponential Smoothing (α=0.30)

PERIOD MONTH DEMAND F2 = D1 + (1 - )F1

1 Jan 37
= (0.30)(37) + (0.70)(37)
2 Feb 40
3 Mar 41 = 37
4 Apr 37
F3 = D2 + (1 - )F2
5 May 45
6 Jun 50 = (0.30)(40) + (0.70)(37)
7 Jul 43 = 37.9
8 Aug 47
9 Sep 56 F13 = D12 + (1 - )F12
10 Oct 52 = (0.30)(54) + (0.70)(50.84)
11 Nov 55
= 51.79
12 Dec 54

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 Exponential Smoothing
FORECAST, Ft + 1
PERIOD MONTH DEMAND ( = 0.3) ( = 0.5)

1 Jan 37 – –
2 Feb 40 37.00 37.00
3 Mar 41 37.90 38.50
4 Apr 37 38.83 39.75
5 May 45 38.28 38.37
6 Jun 50 40.29 41.68
7 Jul 43 43.20 45.84
8 Aug 47 43.14 44.42
9 Sep 56 44.30 45.71
10 Oct 52 47.81 50.85
11 Nov 55 49.06 51.42
12 Dec 54 50.84 53.21
13 Jan – 51.79 53.61

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 Exponential Smoothing
70 –

60 – Actual  = 0.50

50 –

40 –
Orders

 = 0.30
30 –

20 –

10 –

0– | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Month

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 Adjusted Exponential Smoothing
AFt +1 = Ft +1 + Tt +1
where
T = an exponentially smoothed trend factor

Tt +1 = (Ft +1 - Ft) + (1 - ) Tt
where
Tt = the last period trend factor
 = a smoothing constant for trend
0≤≤

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Adjusted Exponential Smoothing (β=0.30)
PERIOD MONTH DEMAND T3 = (F3 - F2) + (1 - ) T2
1 Jan 37 = (0.30)(38.5 - 37.0) + (0.70)(0)
2 Feb 40 = 0.45
3 Mar 41
4 Apr 37 AF3 = F3 + T3 = 38.5 + 0.45
5 May 45 = 38.95
6 Jun 50
7 Jul 43 T13 = (F13 - F12) + (1 - ) T12
8 Aug 47 = (0.30)(53.61 - 53.21) + (0.70)(1.77)
9 Sep 56
= 1.36
10 Oct 52
11 Nov 55
12 Dec 54 AF13 = F13 + T13 = 53.61 + 1.36 = 54.97

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 Adjusted Exponential Smoothing
FORECAST TREND ADJUSTED
PERIOD MONTH DEMAND Ft +1 Tt +1 FORECAST AFt +1

1 Jan 37 37.00 – –
2 Feb 40 37.00 0.00 37.00
3 Mar 41 38.50 0.45 38.95
4 Apr 37 39.75 0.69 40.44
5 May 45 38.37 0.07 38.44
6 Jun 50 38.37 0.07 38.44
7 Jul 43 45.84 1.97 47.82
8 Aug 47 44.42 0.95 45.37
9 Sep 56 45.71 1.05 46.76
10 Oct 52 50.85 2.28 58.13
11 Nov 55 51.42 1.76 53.19
12 Dec 54 53.21 1.77 54.98
13 Jan – 53.61 1.36 54.96

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 Adjusted Exponential Smoothing
Forecasts
70 –
Adjusted forecast ( = 0.30)
60 –
Actual
50 –

40 –
Demand

30 – Forecast ( = 0.50)

20 –

10 –

0– | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Period

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 Linear Trend Line
 xy - nxy
y = a + bx b =
 x2 - nx2
a = y-bx
where
a = intercept where
b = slope of the line n = number of periods
x = time period
x
y = forecast for x = = mean of the x values
demand for period x n
y
y = n = mean of the y values

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 Least Squares Example
x(PERIOD) y(DEMAND) xy x2
1 73 73 1
2 40 80 4
3 41 123 9
4 37 148 16
5 45 225 25
6 50 300 36
7 43 301 49
8 47 376 64
9 56 504 81
10 52 520 100
11 55 605 121
12 54 648 144
78 557 3867 650

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 Least Squares Example

x = 78 = 6.5
12
y = 557 = 46.42
12
b = xy - nxy = 3867 - (12)(6.5)(46.42) =1.72
x2 - nx2 650 - 12(6.5)2

a = y - bx
= 46.42 - (1.72)(6.5) = 35.2

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 Linear trend line y = 35.2 + 1.72x
Forecast for period 13 y = 35.2 + 1.72(13) = 57.56 units

70 –

60 –
Actual

50 –
Demand

40 –
Linear trend line
30 –

20 –

10 – | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Period

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 Seasonal Adjustments

▪ Repetitive increase/ decrease in demand

▪ Use seasonal factor to adjust forecast

Di
Seasonal factor = Si = D

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 Seasonal Adjustment
DEMAND (1000’S PER QUARTER)
YEAR 1 2 3 4 Total
2002 12.6 8.6 6.3 17.5 45.0
2003 14.1 10.3 7.5 18.2 50.1
2004 15.3 10.6 8.1 19.6 53.6
Total 42.0 29.5 21.9 55.3 148.7

D1 42.0 D3 21.9
S1 = = = 0.28 S3 = = = 0.15
D 148.7 D 148.7
D2 29.5 D4 55.3
S2 = = = 0.20 S4 = = = 0.37
D 148.7 D 148.7

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 Seasonal Adjustment

For 2005

y = 40.97 + 4.30x = 40.97 + 4.30(4) = 58.17

SF1 = (S1) (F5) = (0.28)(58.17) = 16.28

SF2 = (S2) (F5) = (0.20)(58.17) = 11.63
SF3 = (S3) (F5) = (0.15)(58.17) = 8.73
SF4 = (S4) (F5) = (0.37)(58.17) = 21.53

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 Forecast Accuracy

• Forecast error
• difference between forecast and actual demand
• MAD
• mean absolute deviation
• MAPD
• mean absolute percent deviation
• Cumulative error
• Average error or bias

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Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)

 Dt - Ft 
MAD = n
where
t = period number
Dt = demand in period t
Ft = forecast for period t
n = total number of periods
  = absolute value

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 MAD Example

PERIOD DEMAND, Dt Ft ( =0.3) (Dt - Ft) |Dt - Ft|

1 37 37.00 – –
2 40 37.00 3.00 3.00
3 41 37.90 3.10 3.10
4 37 38.83 -1.83 1.83
5 45 38.28 6.72 6.72
6 50 40.29 9.69 9.69
7 43 43.20 -0.20 0.20
8 47 43.14 3.86 3.86
9 56 44.30 11.70 11.70
10 52 47.81 4.19 4.19
11 55 49.06 5.94 5.94
12 54 50.84 3.15 3.15
557 49.31 53.39

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MAD Calculation

 Dt - Ft 
MAD = n
53.39
=
11
= 4.85

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 Other Accuracy Measures
Mean absolute percent deviation (MAPD)
|Dt - Ft|
MAPD =
Dt
Cumulative error
E = et
Average error
et
E= n

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 Comparison of Forecasts

FORECAST MAD MAPD E (E)

Exponential smoothing ( = 0.30) 4.85 9.6% 49.31 4.48
Exponential smoothing ( = 0.50) 4.04 8.5% 33.21 3.02
Adjusted exponential smoothing 3.81 7.5% 21.14 1.92
( = 0.50,  = 0.30)
Linear trend line 2.29 4.9% – –

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FYI

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