Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
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Hertz’s Observations
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect was

discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887. While
performing an experiment for production of
electromagnetic waves by means of spark
discharge, Hertz observed that sparks occurred
more rapidly in the air gap of his transmitter
when ultraviolet radiations was directed at one
of the metal plates. Hertz could not explain his
observations but other scientists did it. They
arrived at the conclusion that the cause was the
emission of electron from metal plate due to
incidence of high frequency light. This is photoelectric effect.
Lenard’s Observations
Phillip Lenard observed that when ultraviolet
radiations were made incident on the emitter plate
of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two metal
plates (called electrodes), current flows in the
circuit, but as soon as ultraviolet radiation falling on
the emitter plate was stopped, the current flow
stopped. These observations indicate that when
ultraviolet radiations fall on the emitter (cathode)
plate C, the electrons are ejected from it, which are
attracted towards anode plate A. The electrons flow
through the evacuated glass tube, complete the
circuit and current begins to flow in the circuit. Then
Hallwachs and Lenard studied the phenomenon in detail.
Hallwachs studied further by taking a zinc plate and an electroscope. The zinc plate was connected
to an electroscope. He observed that:
(i) When an uncharged zinc plate was irradiated by ultraviolet light, the zinc plate acquired
positive charge.
(ii) When a positively charged zinc plate is illuminated by ultraviolet light, the positive charge of
the plate was increased.
(iii) When a negatively charged zinc plate was irradiated by ultraviolet light, the zinc plate lost its
charge.
All these observations show that when ultraviolet light falls on zinc plate, the negatively charged
particles (electrons) are emitted.
Further study shows that different metals emit electrons by different electromagnetic radiations.
For example the alkali metals (e.g., sodium, cesium, potassium etc.) emit electrons when visible
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light is incident on them. The heavy metals (such as zinc, cadmium, magnesium etc.) emit
electrons when ultraviolet radiation is incident on them.
Cesium is the most sensitive metal for photoelectric emission. It can emit electrons with less-
energetic infrared radiation.
In photoelectric effect the light energy is converted into electrical energy.
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Variation of stopping potential V0 with frequency of incident radiation
for a given photosensitive material.
Page 4
The graph shows that
(i) The stopping potential Vovaries linearly with the frequency of incident
radiation for a given photosensitive material.
(ii) There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency for which the
stopping potential is zero.
LAWS 0F PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT:

(i) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation
(above the threshold frequency), the photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident light .
(ii) For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation,
saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation whereas the stopping potential is independent of its intensity .
(iii) For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum
cut-off frequency of the incident radiation, called the threshold frequency,
below which no emission of photoelectrons takes place, no matter how
intense the incident light is. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping
potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident
radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
(iv) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any
apparent time lag (∼10-9Sor less), even when the incident radiation is made
exceedingly dim.
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The wave theory of light could not explain the observed characteristics of photoelectric effect.
Einstein extended Planck's quantum idea for light to explain photoelectric effect.
According to this idea, “The energy of electromagnetic radiation is not continuously
distributed over the wavefront like the energy of water waves but remains concentrated in
packets of energy content hv, where v is frequency of radiations and h is universal Planck's
constant Each packet of energy is called a photon or quantum and travels

with the speed of light.
1. According to Eq. (i), Kmax depends linearly on , and is independent of

intensity of radiation, in agreement with observation.
2. Since Kmax must be non-negative, Eq. (i ) implies that photoelectric
emission is possible only if
3. Equation (i) shows that the greater the work function, the higher the
minimum or threshold frequency needed to emit photoelectrons.
Thus, there exists a threshold frequency for the metal surface, below
which no photoelectric emission is possible, no matter how intense
the incident radiation may be or how long it falls on the surface.
4. Intensity of radiation is proportional to the number of energy quanta
per unit area per unit time. The greater the number of energy quanta
available, the greater is the
number of electrons absorbing the
energy quanta and greater,
therefore, is the number of
electrons coming out of the metal
(for > 0).
5. In Einstein’s picture, the basic
elementary process involved in
photoelectric effect is the
absorption of a light quantum by
an electron. This process is
instantaneous.
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Matter Waves : Wave Nature of Particles
Light exhibits particle aspects in certain phenomena (e.g., photoelectric effect, emission and
absorption of radiation), while wave aspects in other phenomena (e.g., interference, diffraction
and polarisation). That is, light has dual nature. In analogy with dual nature of light, de Broglie
thought in terms of dual nature of matter.
de Broglie Hypothesis
Louis de Broglie postulated that the material particles (e.g., electrons, protons, , atoms, etc.)
may exhibit wave aspect. Accordingly, a moving material particle behaves as wave and the
wavelength associated with material particle is
where p is momentum.
The wave associated with material particle is called the de-Broglie wave or matter wave. The de-
Broglie hypothesis has been confirmed by diffraction experiments.
For charged particles associated through a potential of V volt,
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DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

The phenomenon of photoelectric effect was

LAWS 0F PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT:

constant Each packet of energy is called a photon or quantum and travels

1. According to Eq. (i), Kmax depends linearly on , and is independent of

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