CIDR Notation:

CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) notation is used to define IP addresses and their associated
routing prefixes. It is expressed as an IP address, followed by a slash (/) and a number that indicates
how many bits in the IP address are used for the network portion.

Key Concepts:

1. IP Address Structure:
 IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long, divided into 4 octets (each 8 bits).
 Example: 192.168.1.0 is a 32-bit address that looks like this in binary:
11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000.

2. CIDR Notation:
 In CIDR, the IP address is followed by a slash (/) and a number, which specifies the number
of bits used for the network portion.
 Example: 192.168.1.0/24 means the first 24 bits represent the network portion, and the
remaining 8 bits represent the host portion.

3. Subnet Mask:
 The number after the slash represents the subnet mask. It is used to divide an IP address
into two parts: the network portion and the host portion.
 A /24 means that the first 24 bits are "1"s (network portion), and the remaining bits (8 bits)
are "0"s (host portion), i.e., 255.255.255.0.

Calculating CIDR:

1. Determine Network Portion:

 The number after the / indicates how many bits are used for the network.
 Example: /24 uses the first 24 bits as the network portion, leaving 8 bits for host addresses.

2. Calculate Number of Hosts:

 To calculate the number of host addresses, take the number of bits remaining for the host
(total 32 bits in IPv4) and use the formula:
2Number of Host Bits−2
The -2 accounts for the network address and broadcast address.

 For a /24 network, you have 32 - 24 = 8 bits for hosts.

28−2=256−2=254 hosts

3. Convert Subnet Mask to Dotted Decimal:

 Convert the number of network bits into a subnet mask.
 Example: /24 corresponds to 255.255.255.0, which in binary is
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000.

Example:

If you have 192.168.10.0/26, the /26 means the first 26 bits are for the network:
 Network Portion: 192.168.10.0 (26 bits)
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.192
 Number of Hosts: 2^{32-26} - 2 = 62
While Classful Addressing is largely obsolete today (replaced by CIDR or Classless Inter-Domain
Routing), understanding the classes helps explain the history of how IP address allocation worked.
Here's an overview of the IP address classes:

1. Class A:
 Range: 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255 (the first octet is between 1 and 126).
 Default Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0.
 CIDR Notation: /8.
 Network-Host Bits: First 8 bits are for the network portion, remaining 24 bits for the host
portion.
 Number of Networks: 128 networks.
 Hosts per Network: ~16.7 million (2^24 - 2).
 Use Case: Designed for large networks, like multinational companies or ISPs, where many
devices need unique IP addresses.
2. Class B:
 Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255.
 Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0.
 CIDR Notation: /16.
 Network-Host Bits: First 16 bits for the network, remaining 16 bits for the host.
 Number of Networks: ~16,384 networks.
 Hosts per Network: ~65,534 hosts.
 Use Case: Suitable for medium-sized networks, like large organizations or universities.

3. Class C:
 Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255.
 Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0.
 CIDR Notation: /24.
 Network-Host Bits: First 24 bits for the network, last 8 bits for the host.
 Number of Networks: ~2 million networks.
 Hosts per Network: 254 hosts.
 Use Case: Designed for small networks, such as small businesses or local offices.

4. Class D (Multicast):
 Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.
 Use Case: Reserved for multicasting, where a message or packet is sent to multiple devices
at once. Used in specialized applications like streaming video or real-time data distribution.

5. Class E (Experimental):
 Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.
 Use Case: Reserved for experimental purposes and future use. Not used for standard IP
addressing.

OSI Model's Seven Layers:

Layer 1: Physical Layer

 Deals with the physical connection between devices and the transmission of raw binary
data over the network medium.
 Cables (Ethernet, fiber optic), Hubs, Network Interface Cards (NIC)
 Establishes and maintains the physical connection; defines the hardware responsible for
transmitting raw bits over the medium.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

 Manages node-to-node data transfer and error detection. It handles data packets called
frames and provides error-checking through MAC (Media Access Control) addresses.
 Switches, Bridges, MAC Addresses, Ethernet.
 Ensures data is transmitted error-free between nodes on the same network segment.

Layer 3: Network Layer

 Handles the logical addressing and routing of data across different networks. Data packets
here are called packets.
 Routers, IP Addresses, IPv4/IPv6, ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).
 Ensures data is routed correctly between devices on different networks.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

  Manages end-to-end data transmission and error recovery. It ensures complete data
transfer and data integrity using protocols like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP
(User Datagram Protocol).
 TCP, UDP, Port Numbers (e.g., port 80 for HTTP).
 Ensures reliable data transmission, flow control, and segmentation.
 A developer troubleshooting slow or unreliable network communication in an application
would inspect how TCP/UDP connections are established and maintained.

Layer 5: Session Layer

 Establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions between two devices or

applications.
 Manages sessions and dialogues between applications and ensures that connections
remain open for data to be transferred.
 Handling login sessions or managing remote access connections would involve Layer 5.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

 Ensures that data is presented in a readable format, managing data encryption,

compression, and translation between different data formats.
 SSL/TLS (encryption), JPEG, MPEG, GIF, ASCII, EBCDIC.
 Handles encryption and translation of data formats, making sure that data is transformed
into a format the application can process.
 When dealing with secure web traffic (e.g., HTTPS), SSL/TLS encryption occurs at Layer 6.

Layer 7: Application Layer

 Closest to the user, this layer provides services that directly interface with the end-user or
application. It facilitates network services such as email, file transfer, and web browsing.
 HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, SNMP, Telnet.
 Provides network services directly to the end-user's application.
 A web developer ensuring that HTTP requests and responses between browsers and
servers are functioning properly would work at Layer 7.