Chapter 12: The Nervous System

 Includes all neural tissue in the body.

 Contains 2 Basic Types of Cells
1. Neurons – cells that send/receive signals.
2. Neuroglia (aka gland cells) – support/protect neurons.

Organs of the Nervous System

 Includes:
o The Brain
o Spinal Cord
o Sensory Receptors in the Sensory Organs
o Nerves – connects nervous system with other systems.
Anatomical Divisions of the Nervous System
 Central Nervous System (CNS)
o Brain/Spinal Cord, Neural Tissue, Connective Tissue, & Blood Vessels.
o Functions of CNS:
 Process & Coordinate various things (sensory data)
 Process & coordinate motor commands (muscles/glands)
 Higher Functions of the brain (thoughts, emotion, memory)
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
o All nervous tissue outside the CNS.
o Functions of PNS:
 Deliver sensory information to peripheral tissues/organs/systems.
Nerves (peripheral nerves)
 Bundles of axons with connective tissues and blood vessels
 Carry sensory information and motor commands in the PNS
 Cranial Nerves – Connect to Brain
 Spinal Nerves – attach to spinal cord.

o Functional Divisions of the PNS:

 Afferent Division
 Carries sensory info of the PNS sensory receptors to CNS.
 Efferent Commands
 Carries motor
commands from Receptors and Effectors
the CNS to the  Receptors
PNS muscles and o Detect changes or respond to stimuli
glands. o Include neurons and specialized cells
o Include complex sensory organs (e.g. eyes & ears.)
Efferent Divisions of the PNS:  Effectors
 Somatic Nervous System o Responds to efferent signals
(SNS) o Could be cells, glands, organs, muscles, etc.
 Controls Skeletal
muscle contraction, voluntary, involuntary (reflexes)
 Automatic Nervous System (ANS)
 Controls subconscious actions.
 Contraction of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.
 Glandular secretions
 o Divisions of the ANS
 Sympathetic Division – has a stimulating effect (e.g. increasing heart rate)
 Parasympathetic Division – has a relaxing effect

Major Organelles of the Cell Body

 Large nucleus and nucleolus
 Cytoplasm  perikaryon
 RER and ribosomes  make
neurotransmitters
 Nissle Bodies
o Dense areas of RER and
ribosomes
o Make neural tissue appear gray –
hence “gray matter”
The Structure of Neurons
 Dendrites
o Highly branched; branches = dendritic spines
o Spines receive info from other neurons
 The Axon
o Long & carries electrical signal (action potential) to target.
o Axoplasm = cytoplasm of an axon; contains enzymes & organelles.
o Axolemma = specialize cell membrane; covers cytoplasm.
o Axon hillock = thick section of the cell body where axon attaches.
o If the main axon branches, the branches are called collaterals.
o Telodendria = (“telo”  end) fine extensions of the distal axon
o Synaptic Terminal = tips of the axon
 Synapse
o Area where the neuron communicates with another cell.
o Presynaptic Cell – neuron that sends the message
o Postsynaptic cell – cell that receives the message
o Synaptic Cleft – small gap that separates the presynaptic membrane from the postsynaptic
membrane.
o Synaptic Knob – extended area of the axon; contains synaptic vesicles filled with
neurotransmitters.

Types of Synapses
 Neuromuscular junction – synapse between neuron
and muscle.
 Neuroglanduar junction – between neuron and gland.

4 Structural Classifications of Neurons

1. Axonic Neurons
 Found in brain and sense organs.
 Small and all cell processes look alike
2. Bipolar Neurons
 Small; one long axon.
 One long dendrite
 Found in special sensory organs (e.g. eye & ear.)
 3. Unipolar Neurons
 Very large axon
 Cell body to the side
 Dendrites fuse to axon
 Found in sensory nerves of PNS.
4. Multipolar Neurons
 Common in the CNS
 Include All skeletal muscle neurons.
 1 very long axon; multiple dendrites.

3 Functional Classifications of Neurons.

1. Sensory Neurons
 Different neurons of the PNS
 Visceral – monitor internal environment.
 Somatic – monitor the external environment.
2. Motor Neurons
 Efferent neurons of the PNS
3. Interneurons
 Aka association neurons
 Most located in brain, spinal cord, and automatic
ganglia (cluster of neuron cell bodies surround by
neuroglia of the PNS)
 Involved in higher functions – planning, memory &
learning.

Neuroglia of CNS
1. Ependymal Cells
 Form epithelium called ependyma
 Line the central canal of the spinal cord & ventricles of brain.
 Secretes cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
 Have cilia or microvilli to circulate CSF
 Monitor the CSF
2. Astrocytes
 Maintain the blood-brain barrier (isolates the CNS)
 Guide neuron development
 Create 3D framework for
the CNS Myelination
 Control interstitial  Myelin insulates myelinated axon
environment  Increases speed of action potentials
 Repair damaged neural  Makes nerves appear white
tissue
3. Oligodendrocytes Nodes and Internodes
 Wrap around axons to  Internodes – myelinated segments of an axon.
form myelin sheaths.  Nodes (nodes of ranvier) – gaps between the internodes; where
4. Microglia axons may branch.
 Migrate through neural  Action potential jumps from node to node  travels faster.
tissue
White Matter & Gray matter
 White matter = regions of CNS w/ myelinated nerves
 Gray matter = unmyelinated areas of CNS
  Clean up cellular debris, waste products, and pathogens.

Neuroglia of PNS
1. Satellite Cells
 Surround ganglia and regulate the environment around neuron (like astrocytes in CNS)
2. Schwann Cells
 Form myelin sheath (neurilemma)
o Myelin – around peripheral axons.
o Once Schwann cell sheaths one segment of axon
o Many Schwann cells
sheath the entire axon

Peripheral Nerve Regeneration

 Wallerion degeneration  axon distal to
injury degenerates Schwann cells to form a
path for new growth.
Nerve Regeneration in CNS
 Limited by chemical released by astrocytes
that block regrowth of axons and produce
scar tissue that can prevent

Ion Movements and Electrical Signal

 All cell membranes produce electrical
potentials by ion movements.
 Transmembrane potential is particularly important to neurons.

5 Main Membrane Process in Neural Activities

1. Resting Potential – transmembrane potential of a resting cell
 Negatively charged proteins in side cell (about -70mV)
2. Graded potential – Temporary localized change in the resting potential caused by
stimulus.
 If graded potential is large enough, it results in an action potential.
3. Action Potential – an electrical impulse produced by the graded potential.
 Propogates (spreads) along the surface of an axon to the synapse.
4. Synaptic Activity – releases neurotransmitters from presynaptic membrane
 Produces graded potentials in the post synaptic membrane.
5. Information Processing – response (integration of stimuli) of postsynaptic cell.

Passive Forces across the Membrane

 Chemical Gradients – concentration gradients of sodium and potassium
o Substances naturally want to move down concentration gradient (there is less concentration.
 Electrical Gradient – separated charges of positive and negative ions result in a potential difference
o Positive ions attracted to areas that are negatively charged.

3 requirements for transmembrane potential

1. Concentration of gradient of ions (Na+, K+)
2. selectively permeable membrane with channels
3. Maintenance of charged difference across membrane (-70 mV)
Electrical Current
 Movement of charges to eliminate potential difference.
 Resistance = how much the membrane resists the movement of ions (closing channels, etc.)

Electro chemical gradient

 For a particular ion (Na+, K+) the electrochemical gradient is the sum of electrical and chemical
forces. This is a form of potential energy that acts on an ion across a cell membrane.

Equilibrium Potential
 The transmembrane potential at which there is no net movement of a particular ion across the cell
membrane.

Active Forces across the Membrane

 Sodium-Potassium-ATP-ase – powered by ATP
o 2 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in
o Works against passive forces of diffusion
o Maintains resting potential

Changes in Transmembrane Potential

Transmembrane potential rises or falls in response to temporary changes in membrane permeability
resulting from opening or closing membrane channels

Sodium and Potassium Channels

 Membrane permeability to Na+ and K+ determines transmembrane potential
 Sodium and potassium channels are either passive or active

Passive Channels
 Also called leak channels
 Always open
 Permeability changes with conditions

Active Channels
 Also called gated channels
 Open and close in response to stimuli
 At resting potential most gated channels are closed

3 Conditions of Gated Channels

1. Closed but capable of opening
2. Open activated
3. Closed, but not capable of opening inactivated

3 Classes of Gated Channels

1. Chemically regulated channels
a. Open in presence of specific chemicals of the binding site
b. e.g.  Acetylcholine found in neuron cell bodies and dendrites
2. Voltage-Regulated Channels
a. Respond to changes in transmembrane potential
b. Have activation gates (opens the channel) and inactivation gates (closes the channel)
 c. These channels characteristics of excitable
membrane
d. E.g. neuron axons, skeletal muscle sarcolemma,
cardiac muscle
3. Mechanically regulated channels
a. respond to membrane distortion
b. found in sensory receptors (touch, pressure, vibration)

Graded potentials
 Also called local potentials
 Changes in membrane potential that cant speed far from
the site of stimulation
 Any stimuli that opens gated channel produces a graded
potential (may or may not produce action potential)
Resting State -70mV
Step1: Resting membrane exposed to neurotransmitter
 Sodium channels opens- sodium ions enter cell and
transmembrane potential rises
Step 2: movement of Na+ through the channel produces a
local current
 Depolarizes the nearby cell membrane
 Change in potential is propogational to the stimulus

Depolarization a shift in transmembrane potential toward 0mV

Repolarization when stimulus is removed, transmembrane potential is returned to normal
Hyperpolarization increasing the negativity
 It results from opening the K+ channels
 Opposite effect from opening the Na+ channel
 Positive ions are moving out, not into the cell

Action Potentials
 Propagated (Potential spreads across membrane) changes in Transmembrane.
 Affects an entire excitable membrane (that are built to conduct electrical impulses)
 Link graded potentials at cell body with synaptic terminal actions.
Initiating Action Potentials
 Initial stimulus – graded depolarization of axon hillock with a large enough depolarization (10-15
mV) to change the resting potential to threshold level of voltage regulated sodium ion channels.
 Resting potential = -70mV  10-15 mV change  threshold -60 or -55mV

All or None Principle

 If a stimulus exceeds the threshold amount, the action potential is the same, no matter how large
the stimulus.
 Action potential is either triggered or not triggered.
4 Steps in the Generation of Action Potentials
1. Depolarization to threshold
2. Activation of sodium cannels  rapid
depolarization
 Na+ rushes into cytoplasm.
 Inner membrane changes from
negative to positive
3. Inactivation of sodium Channels; Activation
of Potassium Channels
 At +30 mV; in activation gates close
(Na+ channel close, K+ open)
 Beginning of repolarization
4. Return to Normal Permeability
 Potassium channels begin to close when the
membrane reaches normal resting potential
 K+ channels finish closing when membrane
is hyperpolarized to -90 mV
 When transmembrane potential returns to
resting level, the action potential is over.
The Refractory Period
 Time period from the beginning of an action
potential to the return to the resting state during
which the membrane will not respond normally to additional response

2 Divisions of the Refractory Period

1. Absolute Refractory Period
 Sodium channels are either open or inactivated
 No action potential is possible
2. Relative Refractory Period
 Membrane potential is almost normal
 Very large stimulus can initiate an action potential

Propogation of Action Potentials

 Propogation moves action potentials generated in the axon hillock along the entire length of the
axon
 A series of repeated actions, not just passive flow

2 Methods of Propogating Action Potentials

1. Continuous Propogation  unmyelinated axons
2. Saltatory Propogation  myelinated axons

Continuous Propogation
 Affects one segment of axon at a time
Saltatory (Jumping) Propogation
 Faster and uses less energy than continuous
 The myelin insulates the axon and prevents continuous propogation
 Total current jumps from node to node
 Depolarization occurs only in nodes

Axon Diameter and Propogation Speed

  Ion movement is related to cytoplasmic concentration
 Axon diameter effects axon diameter speed
 The larger the diameter, the lower the electrical resistance
3 Axon Types/Groups
 Classified by: diameter, myelination and speed of action potential
Type A Type B Type C
 Myelinated  myelinated  Unmyelinated
 Large diameter  medium diameter  Small diameter
 Fast speed (140 m/s)  medium speed (18 m/s)  1 m/s  very slow
 Carry rapid information to/from CNS  carry less urgent sensory  carry smaller information
 i.e.  touch, balance, motor impulses, information & less urgent  i.e.  gland or involuntary
& position motor commands muscle information

Synaptic Activity
Action Potentials are transmitted from presynaptic neuron to postsynaptic neuron (or other
postsynaptic cell) across a synapse

2 Types of Synapses
1. Electrical Synapses physical contact between the cells
2. Chemical Synapses signal is transmitted across a gap by chemical neurotransmitters
Electrical Synapses two cells are locked together at gap junctions
 Allow ions to pass between cells
 Produces continuous local current and action potential propogation
 Extremely rare found in areas of brain and eye

Chemical Synapses
 Most synapses between neurons and all synapses between neurons and other cells
 Cells are not in direct contact
 Action potentials may not be propogated to the postsynaptic cell
 Depending on:
o Amount of neurotransmitter released
o Sensitivity of the postsynaptic cell
2 Classes of Neurotransmitter
1. Excitory neurotransmitter cause depolarization of postsynaptic membranes. They promote
action potentials
2. Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membranes. They
suppress action potentials
The Effect of a Neurotransmitter
 Depends on the receptor; not the neurotransmitter
 E.g.  Acetylcholine usually promotes action potentials.
Inhibits cardiac neuromuscular junction
Cholinergic Synapses
 Any Synapse that releases Ach
 Includes all neuromuscular junction with skeletal muscle fibers
 All neuron–to-neuron synapses is in PNS
 Many synapses in CNS
 All neuroglandular and neuromuscular junctions of (ANS) Autonomic Nervous System’s
parasympathetic (relaxing) division.
Steps of Events at a Cholinergic Synapse
Step 1: An Action Potential Arrives and depolarizes the Synaptic Knob
Step 2: Extracellular Calcium Ions Enter the Synaptic Knob, Triggering the Exocytosis of Ach
Step 3: Ach Binds to Receptors and Depolarizes the Postsynaptic Membrane
Step 4: Ach is removed by AchE

Synaptic Delay
 0.2 to 0.5 msec. synaptic delay occurs between the arrival of the action potential at the synaptic
knob and the effect on the postsynaptic membrane
 Fewer synapses mean faster response
 Reflexes may involve only one synapse

Synaptic Fatigue
 Occurs when neurotransmitters cant recycle fast enough to meet demands of intense stimuli
 Synapse inactive until Ach is replenished
Other Neurotransmitters
 At least 50 neurotransmitters besides Ach
 Some are amino acids
 Peptides
 ATP
 Some dissolved gases
Norepinephrine (NE)
 A.k.a. noradrenaline
 Excitory in brain and the autonomic nervous system
Dopamine
 In CNS
 May be Excitory or inhibitory
 Parkinson’s disease loss of neurons that produce dopamine
 Cocaine use dopamine stays in synapses rather than being broken down
Serotonin
 In CNS
 Affects attention and emotional states severe chronic depression
 Prozac SSRI(Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor)
 Less reabsorbtion more serotonin at synapse

Neuromodulators
 Other Chemicals released by synaptic Knobs
 Similar in function to neurotransmitters but effects are long term and slow to appear
Opiods neuromodulators in CNS
 Bind to the same receptors as Opium or Morphine
 Relieve pain
 Includes the endorphins that cause “runner’s high”

Information Processing by Individual Neurons

 At simplest level (individual neurons)
o Many dendrites receive neurotransmitter messages simultaneously
 Some Excitory some inhibitory
 Net effect on axon hillock determines if action potentials produced

Postsynaptic potentials
 Graded potential in postsynaptic cell in response to neurotransmitters
 2 Types
1. Excitory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSP)
o Graded depolarization of postsynaptic membrane
2. Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSP)
o Graded hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane

Inhibition
A membrane that receives many IPSP’s is inhibited from producing an action potential because the
stimulation needed to reach threshold is increased

Summation
 To trigger an action potential:
o EPSP is not enough
o EPSP (and IPSP’s) combine through summation
 Temporal Summation
 Spatial Summation
Temporal Summation
 Multiple times
 Rapid repeated stimulation at one synapse
Spatial Summation
 Multiple location
 Many stimuli arrive at multiple synapses

Facilitation
A neuron becomes facilitated as EPSP’s accumulate raising transmembrane potential closer to
threshold; until a small stimulation can trigger an action potential