Lecture one

Introduction to instrumentations and

control
Techniques and applications
instrumentation work in two ways, by techniques or 
by’applications .’
When we consider instrumentation by technique, we
survey one scientific field, such as radioactivity or
ultrasonics, and look at all the ways in which it can be used
to make useful measurements.
When we study instrumentation by application, we cover
the different techniques to measure a particular quantity.
Under flowmetering, for instance, we look at many methods,
including tracers, ultrasonics, or pressure measurement.
2 Accuracy
The most important question in instrumentation
is the accuracy with which the measurement is
made.
Instrument engineers should be skeptical of
accuracy claims, and they should hesitate to accept
their own reasoning about the systems they have
assembled.
They should demand evidence, and preferably
proof.
Too much accuracy will unnecessarily increase costs, while
too little may cause performance errors that make the project
unworkable. Accuracy is important but complex.

We must first distinguish between “systematic” and

“random” errors in an instrument. “Systematic” error is
the error inherent in the operation of the instrument, and
calibrating can eliminate it..

Calibration is the comparison of the reading of the

instrument in question to a known “standard” and the
maintenance of the evidentiary chain from that standard.
We call this “traceability.
The phrase random errors implies the action of
probability. Some variations in readings, though clearly
observed, are difficult to explain, but most random errors
can be treated statistically without knowing their cause

If we assume that the instrument output is

exactly proportional to a quantity, and we
find discrepancies, this is called “non-
linearity error.
Non-linearity error is the maximum
departure of the true input/output curve from
the idealized straight line approximating it.
 Microprocessor-based instrumentation has
reduced the problem of systematic non-linearity to
a simple issue.
Most modern instruments have the internal
processing capability to do at least a multi poirit
breakpoint linearization
Sensors connected to digital electronics have
little or no error from electronic noise, but most
accurate results can still be expected from longer
measurement times.
Environment
 Instrument engineers must select their
devices based on the environment where they
will be installed. In plants there will be
extremes of temperature, vibration, dust,
chemicals, and abuse

Instruments for use in plants are very

different from those that are designed for
laboratory use
Two kinds of ill effects arise from badly
selected instruments: false readings from
exceptional values of influence quantities, and the
irreversible failure of the instrument itself.
Sometimes manufacturers specify limits to
working conditions. Sometimes instrument
engineers must make their own judgments.
When working close to the limits of the working
conditions of the equipment, a wise engineer
derates the performance of the system or designs
environmental mitigation

Because instrumentation engineering is a

practical discipline, a key feature of any
system design must be the reliability of the
equipment
 Lecture two

Flow measurement
Material flow is involved in nearly every process
industry. This flow moves materials from one place to
another and can add or remove heat. Liquid raw
materials flow to a reaction vessel, finished product flows
to a storage tank.

Steam flows through heating coils, cooling water

flows through condenser coils. Even solid materials
flow in certain cases. In all of these examples, the
rate of flow must be controlled.
By controlling flowrate, we can usually control
reaction rate. Controlling the flowrate can also
regulate other process variables, such as
temperature and pressure.

How flow is measured depends on the rate of

flow and the type of material flowing.
The higher a fluid’s viscosity the more difficult it is
to get the fluid to flow.
Viscosity strongly affects the measurement of
fluid flow. Table 2-2 lists the viscosities of some
common fluids.

Viscosity changes with temperature.

Lubricating oils, for example, are assigned SAE
numbers according to their viscosities at specified
temperatures. But viscosity measurements may
be expressed in units other than SAE numbers.
In the metric system, a unit of measure often
used for viscosity is the poise (1 dyne-s/cm2). In the
Imperial measurement system, viscosity is often
measured in lb-s/ft2.
 LAMINAR FLOW
Laminar comes from a Latin word that means ‘thin
plate’. Laminar flow is a smooth, layered flow

The central core of fluid moves the fastest, and

the outermost tube (touching the pipe wall)
moves the slowest.

Smoothly drawn flow lines on a diagram called

streamlines, show the shape of laminar flow.
Turbulent flow is not smooth like laminar flow. It
is rough and irregular.
Roughness in the flow path and changes in
velocity or viscosity can transform laminar
flow into turbulent flow.

Sometimes turbulent flow is used for mixing fluids.

Process fluid designers need to know about

laminar and turbulent flow to create efficient flow
systems.
FIGURE 2-5 LAMINAR FLOW CONVERTED TO TURBULENT FLOW
BY INCREASING THE FLOW VELOCITY
called a convection current
In process fluid systems, there are two ways of setting up a
pressure difference so that fluids can flow. One is by gravity, the
other is with a pump
 Lecture three

Flow measuring instruments •

Ways of Indicating Fluid Flow rate
FACTORS AFFECTING FLOWRATE
TABLE 2-3 PRESSURE LOSS FOR ASSORTED SIZES OF WROUGHT IRON PIPE (IN PSI / 100 FT)
FIGURE 3-1 TYPES OF FLOW
FIGURE 3-2 ELECTRONIC FLOW TOTALIZER
Figure 3-4 Venturi tube with manometer
THE ORIFICE PLATE
Figure 3-5 shows the most common device used to restrict fluid flow
- an orifice plate.
Orifice plates come in three styles and in
sizes ranging from about 2½ in. to over 30 in.
in diameter