LEARNING

L - - -- - - - ~
i1i
LEARNING OBJECTIVES X .J s

t )Concept of Learning
♦ Characteristics of learning/L
earnin g Process
w>Factors affecting learning
,'@ Theories of learning
■ Classical conditioning th
eo ry
( ■ Operant conditioning theory
•( ■ Cognitive learning theo
ry
■ Social learning theor
y
■ Reinforcement theor
y
~"♦\ Orga
nizational behav1o
. ur mo difi' .
cation
Concept of Learning
Learning is an important psyc
hological dimension which ex
behaviour. Learning takes pla plains human
ce throughout the life of an in
one takes birth in this world till dividual when
the death. During the entire lif
come across various phases e an individual
of learning new experiences
Learning explains how peop .
le develop their unique pe
further improve their learning rsonalities and
through modifications in th
Early behaviourists like B.F. Sk eir behaviour.
inner and John Watson have
conscious behaviour is impo explained how
learning. This originates oper rta nt and ca n be m od ified through positive
ant conditioning theory.
Some definitions
According to dictionary of ps
ychology, "learning is the proc
th e ability to respond adequa ess of acquiring
tely to a situation which may
been previously encountered or m
, the favourab le modificatio ay not have
tend encies consequent upon n
previous experience particular of response
of a new series of complex ly
coordinated motor response, the building
the fixation of
64
-- -- -- -- -- -T A X
M A N N ® -- -- --
-- -- -
 LEARNING
65
itern~ ~ ID:e~ory ~o that they can be recalled .
acqUlflilg ms1ght mto a situation." or orgamzed, the process of
E.R. Hilgard defined, "Learning as relative} e
that occurs as a result of prior experienc~.P rmanentcha ngein behaviour
Munn defined. "Learning as the process of h •
ore or less permanent ly by what h d avmgone's behaviour modified,
rn e oes and th e consequences of his
action by what he observes."

characteristics of learning/Learn·,ng process

On the basis of definitions of learning followin . .
,,.,,ng It is also known as le . process. g are the charactenst1cs of
Iearu.J.
.U • arrung
1. Learning· is brelatively permanent change m . b h . T
h · e av10ur. emporary
c· h anges m fe1 aviour
• due to influenc e of drugs, alcoh o1, illness etc.
ot rt ,
1s n pa o earnmg.
h t
2. Learning b • . change in behaviour b ut sueh c ange may no
rilincludes
necess~. Y. nng nnproveme nt in behaviour and it may not always
be positive m nature. For example backbiting bad habits smoking
drinking etc. are also learned fro~ somewhe;e, ' '
3. Change in behaviour of an individual must be based on result of ex-
perience, practice or training. Any changed behaviour due to physical
maturation is not learning.
4. The learned behaviour must be repeated until it has become per-
manent part of behaviour. If new behaviour is not practiced, then
it will disappear. One can follow the saying, "Practice makes a man
perfect."
5. The learning should be reflected in behaviour of a person. If it is not
reflected in behaviour, then it is not considered as learning.
6. Learning includes direct experience or participation in any event and
it should be a continuous process.

Factors affecting learning

The~e are certain factors which eftects learniJJg process and they are the
basic elements in fearning. These are as follows :
1
·' -
~ {I!!;inforcement: Reinforcement is repetiti~~ of'same kind of be~aviour
again and again. It is a fundamenta l condition and plays very rrnport-
ant role in learning. If one can do a particular thing many tgnes,_ Qn_e
can easily learn it. More a person practices, more he learnL}
2. Mental set up : One should need mental set up for making learning
process smooth and easy. If one mentally prepares to learn something
new, then learning process become quick.
-------- ---TAX MANN®- - - - - - - - - - -
 LEARNING
66
. nt . It is the set up for learning
3. Envirolfnmhe n.vrr·onment in which learning t 1.
place t e e is fa vo ur able, then one can learn th~
. kl. d asily than in an unfav bl . ~
oura e environment. "llllD,
qU1c y an e ~
4. Cues : Cues gives direction
~o our ~otives and ~u~s _are
• th environment which 1s pe any objec~
m e rceived by an mdividual. Cu
increase or decrease the possib fd . . ul es boi,
ility o ep1c tmg any res t. ''lll
s. Motivation : Motivation is the interest
the major condition for _learnin_ towards an y t~ g and it h
g_ to takes ?lace. If one 1~ p~
motivated, then one depicts posi si~ve
tive behaviour and learmng 1s li
form of rewards. Contrary, if on m
e is negatively motivated then the
depicts negative behaviour and one
learning is in the form of punish
6. Nature of learning mat ment.
erial : If learning material
is easy,
ingful and one is familiar with
the learning material or cont mean.
learning process become easy ent then
and quick as compared to di
meaningless and unfamiliar lear fficult
ning content.
'
Theories of le ar ni ng
There ~re various theories
of learning which shows th
behaviour and response e re la tio ns hi between
explained as under: developed by behavioura
l ex rt pd
pe s an ca n be
\
1. Classical condition
ing theory \
T1:tls theory was develope I

wmner, Ivan Pavlov. It is a d in 19 02 by Russian h

basic form of le ar ni n P s1. 0 .
J
comes to serve as a signal fo l?
· h . r the occurrence f g w gist an d a~ ar d
is any p ys1cal ev
ent capable of affecting heo second st· hich on e stimulus
h . ul .
be ha ~o ~ is learned by asso un us. Stun ulus
ciation be tw ee ns ~ ~ :·
association. He carried ou t Pavlov ar gu ed that
an experiment on d nd
between the dog's salivatio 0 a re sp on se i.e. S-R
n and the ringing ~f \ ~ d
dogs are not salivating only found th e relation
bell is ring. when food is given a : ·
10 1 He co nc lu de d th
em bu t also w he n thate
This th~ory is a S-R theo
responsible for creating rery i.e. stimulus-response th
sponse.
eory. A stimulus is
 LEARNING 67

Steps in the exper·•ment

Step 1
Before conditioning
Meat
(US)
C
=> Salivation
(UR)
Bell

(Neutr al stimulus)
C
> No respon se

Step 2
During conditioning
Meat+ Bell Salivation
C ;
C>
(US) (CS) (UR)
Step 3
After conditioning
Bell l' 1;; r ~ Salivation
(CS) (CR)

Classical condi tionin g theor y components

1. Unconditioned stimulus(US) : A stimulus presented for the first
time and presen ts unconditioned response.
.2. Unconditioned response(UR): A response presented by an uncon-
ditioned stimulus.
3. Conditioned stimul us(CS): A stimulus which is continuously paired
with uncond itioned stimulus.
4. Neutral stimul us: A stimulus doesn't create any response.
5. Conditioned response(CR): A response which is created by condi-
tioned stimulus.
6. Stimulus : A stimul us is a physical event capable of affecting be-
haviour of any organism.
~ _,, J~Jo, A_ - .. u .. A· ti
2· Operant conditioning theor y , ~ Ml.JA
A. -

~ 8'
This theory was developed by B.F. Skinner and argued that human beings
learn those behaviours which will be rewarding and avoid those which are
not rewarded or punished. This theory provided one additional elemen t

~ Co~ TAXMANN®- - - - - : - - - : ---,,-:- --

l, 8oMi &\Iv
~ ,U~ .fo ~ f .
 I

LEARNING
68
. ulus and response i.e.. consequence. It is a R-S theory_ 'l\..
st
apart from im . d . .t . detail ~,lls
h already exp1aine in the personality um m ·
theory as . di . .
dit· ning and ope rant con t1omng theo
Difference between classical con 10 ~
of learning : _
~.No. Classical,Conditioning ,. ·.: "' Operant Conditioning
There may be direct relat ions ~p No such relat ions hip is nec ess ~
1. between stimulus and res?onse i.e. this theory. !
L _J_!:b~eh~a~vi~·o~ur~is~a:_!r~e~sul~t~of ~s~ tI~m ul~u =s•= f~:: ~:t~
The stim ulus (rew
~~~ )is- ;~~ ~
ard)
2. The stimulus is presented every only if one gives corr is presented
time for the response to occur. ect response.

3. It is regarded as stimulus respdonse It is rega rded as resp onse stimulus

(R-S ) theo ry i.e. resp onse leads to
(S-R) theory i.e. st~u lus lea s to
response. stimulus.
4. Reinforcement is not received by The individual's resp onse is instru.
choice of the individual mental in secu ring reinforcement
5. The focus is on involuntary response The focus is upon volu ntary
response
6. A specific stimulus i.e. food is used Responses are varia
ble in types and
for getting response. Response is degrees depending upon
fixed in this. stimulus.

3. Cognitive lear nin g theory

/
According to cognitive learn ing theo ry, lear ning is a men
tal activ ity. The
conc ept of cognition refe rs to an individual's idea s, know
ledg e, thou ghts ,
unde rstan ding etc. abou t himself and his-e nvir onm ent.
If an indi vidu al is
exposed to a stim ulus or man y info rmat ion, then one leat
ns or reca lls only
a few info rmat ion whic h satisfies one' s need s and help s to
acco mpl ish goals.
Cognition is a proc ess towa rds acqu iring know ledg e. If
one und erst and s a
person's cogniti~e_system, then one can pred icth i~/h er beha
viou r. Acc ordi ng
to Tolman, cogrutive theo ry can be lear ned as Stnn ulus -Stim
ulus app roac h
i.e. one stim ulus leads to anot her. Its impl icati on is that mos
relations training prog ram mes were base d on this conc t of the emp loye e
ept.

./ 4. Social lear nin g theory

Rott er's social learn ing theo ry sugg est that pers onal ity
of an indi vidu al.
strongly influ ence d by bas,ic form s of learning. Thro ugh
lear ning a pe 18
can, acqw·re.kn?we I' d ~e, 1anguage, ~tt1t
· ud e, _va1ues etc. S oc1a
· l lear ningrson
learn ing whic h 1s achieved thro ugh mter actlo n betw een is a
people, beha vi
and envi ronm ent. This theo ry is an exte nsio n of oper ant
conditioning. T~

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ TAXMANN ®-
------------
,I

I ' "
•rS-
 LEARNING 69
theory integ rates the cognitive and
different ways of learn ing: oper ant theories of learning. Ther e are
.
a. Learning thro ugh direc t exp enen ce
b. Learning by obse rving others or vican. . ·
ous learning or modelling
c. Sym b o Iism
d Self-control
Social learn ing theo ry cons ider • .
determining hum an beha viou r. situa tion as an impo rtant variable in
.
Rotter's social learn ing appr oach cont am . .
atten tion to the mtem al and
external cont rol of outc ome s :
1. Internal control of outcomes ·. In Rott er,s term, mdiv . . •
believe that the h iduals who
y ·tvili~ cont rol over the outc omes they expe rience.
Th take by
ey . . resfponhsi ty for their actions, not easily influ ence d
th e oprm on o ot ers.
This locu s of cont rol was given by Julian B-Rotter in 1966.
s who be-
2. External cont rol of outcomes: In Rotter's term individual
rience.
lieve that they have little cont rol over the outc o~es they expe
and
They tend to blam e outs ide circu msta nces for their mist akes
. cred it their succ ess to luck rathe r than their own efforts.

5. Reinforcement theo ry
expr ess he
This theo ry play s impo rtan t role in learning process and
er a noto o
relat~onship betw een behavio!:!£_and its cgns eque nce~ B.F. S~
of this tli.eory
Hayward psyc holo gist deve lope d this theory. The main focu s
prov iding
is upon chan ging the beha viou r of individuals on job !hro ugh
niza tiona l
immediate rewa rds and puni shm ~t. [ is also calle d orga
of oper ant
behaviour mod ifica tions or O Mod. l_his isba sed on the conc ept
otpe ople is
onditioning. Rein orce men t theo ry argu es that beha viou r
or leasa nt
determme y it~~0nseg uenc e§. The actio ns havi ng positive
· ·
conse uenc es tend s to be re eate d in futu re w e
again~
~gat ive or unp easa nt cons eque nces tend s to be less repe ated
the possibility
Reinforcement can be defin ed as that actio n whic h dete rmin es
in moti vatin g
of repeating the beha viou r. It also plays impo rtant role
g peop le in
employees in orga niza tions and it is a pow erfu l tool for man agin
beha viou rs
organizations. Mos t beha viou r in orga niza tions are the oper ant
i.e. learned, cont rolle d and alter ed by cons eque nces .

- - - --- --- --T AX M AN N® --- --- --- ---

70 LEARNING

'T es of Reinforcem
yp ent
.
T he re ar e va ri. ou s t of re in fo rc em en t w hi ch m ay b e u se d m lear
yp es . . o f re in fo rc em n;k
These are also known en t a n d b ased on ·•IJ.11~
a~ ~ a th
rind le th at be ha vi ou 15 te g i~ t of its nse uences. The:e ~
ty pe s of re in fo rc em r t _es
en t st ra te gi es u se in or ga ni za ti on s fo r mfluencint
d
be ha vi ou r of em pl .
oy ee s. T he se ar e as g
fa ll ow s . ul d
i. Posi.tive reinfor~~m 1 'd os it iv
e~t~ e~ :~ ~ :r r~ ~ ii s a pher es ts an re w ar ds that
m ot iv at es re pe ti ti on
to th e en vi ro nm en ° h
ys ic al ev en t w he n
t st re ng t en s poss1'bility of re sp on se . T he positiv
added
re in fo rc em en t ca n e
fu rt he r b e cl as si fi ed
as:
a. Primary or unco
nditioned reinforcemen
ar e in de pe nd en t of ~: P ri m ar y r~ in forcers
pa st experien_ces. ~
th at is ca pa bl e of af n m ar y ph ys ic al ev
fe ct in g be ha vi ou r 1s ent
fo r an individual. E an u n le a~ ed rewar
xa m pl es ar e fo od , d
etc. w at er , cl ot hi ng , shelter
b. Secondary or condition
ed reinforcement: S ec on
depends on an individual th at br in g da ry reinfdifforce rs
m ea ni ng for di ff er en pl ea su re an d h av e
t individuals. T he se erent
on pa st re in fo rc em re in for ce rs depends
en t hi st or y of an in
praise, money, reco di vi du al . F o r example,
gnition, pr om ot io n
ii. N eg at iv e reinfo et c.
rcement : It is also
be ca us e it oc cu rs w kn ow n as av oi da nc
he n a pe rs on le ar ns e learning
un pl ea sa nt conseque to av oi d o r es ca pe
nces. It is also call
ed es ca pe co nd it io
from
oc cu rs against avoida ni ng . It
nce of pu ni sh m en t or
example, following th re at of pu ni sh m en
traffic rules to avoi t. F or
training is us ed to al d ac ci de nt s. In or ga
er t employees ag ai ns ni za ti on s
iii. P u n is h m en t : It t ne ga ti ve re su lt s.
de cr ea se s th f fr eq ue
be ha vi ou r ~gainst un nc y o r w ea ke ns un
pl ea sa nt or un de si ra de si ra bl e
pay de du ct io n of an bl e st im ul us. F o r ex
employee for regula ample,
nization. Pu ni sh m en rly corning la te in th
t might fr us tr at e an e orga-
carefully given. em pl oy ee an d it sh
- ou ld b ;
iv. Extinction: It is us
ed fo r controlling un
non- reinforcement de si ra bl e be ha vi ou r.
an d ba se d on th e fa It m ea ns
re pe ated, it will disa ct th at if a re sp on se
ppear. F or example,
element in a group he if on e ignores th e di is t
. ca n m en d his ways be st ur b1:1°
at te nt io n of peers. ca us e he do es n' t re
1:11g
ce1v e
Schedules of re in
fo rc em en t
Reinforcement is no
t considere~ necess
be administered in ary fo~ le a r~ g bu
_ _ __ _ su ch a way m or de t it sh ou ld
_ _ _ __ _ r to bn ng m ax un um
TAXMAN
N®-
effects. If
- - - - - - -- -
 LEARNING 71

i.nforcernent is properly administered it enhances the probability of

re etition and increa_ses strength of desired behaviour. The effectiveness
rf~einforcement vanes as a function of the schedule of its administration.
~ifferent schedules of reinforcement can be as follows:
i Continuous reinforcement schedule : Every positive behaviour is
followed by a rem~orcer under this schedule. It increases positive
behaviour v~ry rap1d~y. It is difficult to apply this schedule because
it is not possible to remforce every positive behaviour each time.
ii Partial reinforcement schedule: It is also known as intermitten t
reinforcement schedule. In this reinforcement doesn't occur after
every correct behaviour. It has much wider application in OB. B.F.
Skinner has described four types of partial reinforcem ent schedule.
These are: -
a. Fixed ratio schedule: Under this schedule, the exact number
of response is specified and rewards are given after a fixed
number of responses. For example, piece wage system of wage
payment. Workers try to produce as many pieces as possible
for getting monetary rewards.
b. Variable ratio schedule: This schedule is most powerful in
sustaining the behaviour. In this reward is given only after a
number of desired response. The reward varies relative to the
behaviour of the individual. For example, target based incentive
system. In this individuals get incentive only after the targets
are met. Sometimes marketing personnel met the target only
after five calls. On other occasions, they might make even 30
or more calls to meet the targets.
c. Fixed internal schedule: This schedule provides reinforcem ent
only when fixed amount of time has passed in achieving desired
response. For example, time wage system ~>f wage payment.
This method provides least motivation for hard work Pay is
dependent on time rather than actual performance.
d Variable interval schedule: Under this schedule, the rein-
forcement is controlled mainly after a randomly distributed
length of time rather than after a number of responses. This
schedule is ideal for praise, promotion, supervisory visits etc.
For example the production manager visits the plant at ran-
domly selected time intervals and production increases higher
without any fluctuations.

- - - - - - - - - TAXMANN® - -- - - - - - - - -
 LEARNING
72
. . I behaviour modification
Organizat1ona . . .
. · • modifi'cation or OB mod 1s used
hav10ur . for merea·
Orgaruzational be in organizations. OB Mod 1s developed &Siiii
I
efficiency of emtp oyde1~ts1·oning theory which states that by creatingpleaso~
Skinner'soperan con bh . ant
can ensure the repetition of same e aviour. The lllaih
consequences One . h bh . f . d' 'd 111
focus of OB Modification is o~ changmg t e e aviour o m IVI uals on
job through rewards and pumshments.
Robbins defined OB Mod, "OB Mod is a pro~ramme where_ managet
·d tify performance - related employee behaviours and then IIl1plement
~:itervention strategy to strengthen desirable behaviour and weaken
undesirable behaviour.

Process of OB Modification
OB Mod process has certain steps which must be fallowed by managers
for practical implementation. These are : .
i.. Identify undesirable behaviour : The first step in OB Mod pro-
cess is to identify unwanted or critical behaviour having impact
on performance results should be analyzed. Some behaviours are
not desirable in organizations like backbiting, absenteeism, politics,
complaints, negative attitude etc. Through behaviour analysis the
critical behaviour is to be recognized.
ii.. Measuring behaviour : Once the critical behaviour is identified, it
should be measured in terms of its occurrence. If it is desirable then
no action is required. If it is undesirable, then it should be modified
or changed.
iii. Analysis of behaviour: Behaviour analysis should be d · der
dif · F · l 1 . one m or
to mo y 1t. unct~ona _ana ys1s of behaviour involves examination
of employee behaviour m terms of its impact on it et •t· al
l · f b h · · d
ana ys1s o e av10ur 1s one one can find out conf c. Onee en 1c
quences because they have impact on subsequent beh~~:!~onse-
iv. Intervention strategies : An appropriate intervention h
strategy should be developed. As discussed earlier als otrh c ange
. used for influencingo ere are
different reinforcement strategies
. . rem. forcement,
behaviour sueh as: positive negative reinfoempoyee
1
. .
punishment and extmct10n. rcement,

v. Evaluation : In the last_ step efvahluationd obfhap~lied intervention

strategy is done. Companson _o c ange e av1our and desired
behaviour should be made to find out any gap areas. Change strat-

TAXMANN® - -- -- - -- - -
 LEARNING
. 73
eg1es are successful only in c f
an individual. ase O positive change in behaviour of

Practical implementation of OB Mod

There are large number of applications of .
theory. These can be used in disc· Ii . OB Mod and remforcement
mentoring programmes for new e~~l rung the employe_es, designing
training programmes, modifying suborlees ~~d de~elopmg employee
regulation, incentives. ates ehaviour through rules,
OB Mod has been applied in many organiz f . .
about improving morale of employees ~~~s with encour~gmg results
has been used in organizations in the areas omfcreat~ed. profit. 0~ ~od
mo 1vation, orgamzation
deve1opment, h uman resource management e t· d
training and development etc. ' xecu ive eve1opment,

Criticism of OB Mod
The main objection against OB Mod can be explained as:
l Skinn~r's oper~nt co°:ditioning theory was developed after a series of
e~penments with white rat. It is not ethical to equate human beings
with rat. ·
il OB Mod restricts freedom of choice of behaviour which is important
element for working in organizations.
iil It can't be considered as innovative and creative technique of man-
agement.
iv. Skinner conducted experiments in laboratory settings but organiza-
tional settings are different from it which makes OB Mod unrealistic.
v. The programmes based on negative reinforcement or punishment
are not popular or effective and managers don't appreciate these
strategies.
vl Extinction is a long term strategy requiring a lot of time and managers
are expected to take immediate action in organization.

Review Questions
I. What do you understand by learning? Explain features of learning.
II. Learning leads to change in human behaviour. Is it always positive in nature?
Comment.
m. What is reinforcement. Discuss various schedules of reinforcement? Explain
theory of reinforcement.
- - - - - ------TAXMAN N®- - -- - - - -- - -
74 LEARNING

.
IV. What 1s operant conditioning?· How it. is. dif.ferent from classical cond· .
.. 1ij n\i
v Cnt1ca11y examm·e behaviour modification theory. What are the 0 ~
. steps mv
. o1v · shaping behaviour through mo dif' ·
' ed m v·
ica. tion?
Vl. What is the concept of learning?
What are the vanous factors affecr
learning process?
VII. Explain classical conditioning the
ory. ?What are various steps involved·
experiment conducted by Ivan Pavlov.
VIII. Explain cognitive learning the
ory given by Tolman.

Case study
Leaming Loyalty towards organiza
tion
Manvendr a is the Manager in the
sales department of th em ultina
having 75 employees in his depa tional corporatio
rtment. All th~ e!11ployees ~ his
paid well salaries along with hand
some comIIllSs1on for therr sales
d~partment 1
For the past several years, the m th~t regio~
1

MNC was doing well an d th e

and production of goods has be compames goo~
en increasing at a very fast rat
in Mavendra's department have e. The employe1
met their targets an d the re is inc
and sales in the marketing depa reased growt\
rtment of the MNC. However,
have not abl.e to meet the targe few employ~i
ts and their total contribution in
department 1s not up to the mark. the marketinl
These employees has be en with
for over 10 years and s.enior em this companl
ployees in the department. These
respected by everyone m the depa employees ar~
rtment because of their seniority
were ~o~al and committed ~o~ards level and the)
late fifties and about to retire m the organization. These em ploye
a couple of years. In earlier years es are in th~{
their contribution was m ~e ~ous of their service
?u t now they will not able to do
wishes to ch~nge the entire s1tuat so. Manvendr\
1on.
the increase m sales to match t?a He wants to motivate those employees foi
group norms. But Manvendra 1s t of others in the department according to th1
employees. Unlikethe maJon . . f noht able to understand how t
one who will retire soon. ty o ot er emp1oyees these few emo mot·1vate thos
olde
P1oyees are
Quest ions
Q. t. If you were Manvendra wh
at would you do in this situation?
Q·2· Would you threaten to fire those em
. ployees or increase the,.- . . ?
Q•3• How would you motivate employees in ord . ,_ co:rnnuss1on.
•
and learn new techniqu f · ?
er to increase 1-1--e• 'b .
es or 1t. • w~ Ir contn ut10n
 6 PERCEPTION

♦ Concept of perc eptio n

♦ feat ures of Perc eptio n
♦ Proc ess of Perc eptio n
♦ Significance of Perc eptio n
♦ Fact ors influ enci ng perception
♦ Perc eptu al erro rs and distortions
♦ Attr ibuti on theo ry of perception

Concept of per cep tion

a process
Perception is the ~os t impo rtan t cognitive process. Perception is
?f ~~a t we perc eive abou t anything i.e. any object, person, thing etc. Ever y
to hear,
mdividual has five sens e organs i.e. eyes to see, nose to smell, ear
by using
tongue to taste and skin to feel. These are hum an processes and
ronment.
these proc esse s an individual receives information about his envi
defined
The entir e proc ess is know n as perception process. Robbins has
individuals
Perception as, "Per cept ion can be defined as a process by which
meaning
organize and inte rpre t their sensory impressions in orde r to give
ory inputs.
to their envi ronm ent." Perc eptio n refers to giving color to sens
processors
Just like CPU of a com pute r, hum an beings also are information
in identical
with one basi c diffe renc e that com pute rs process information
nalities and
man ner, hum an bein gs differ beca use of their different perso
t you and
uniqueness. Perc eptio n is a process of forming im_pression abou
othe r people and daily life experience.

Features of Perception
acteristics
On the basi s of vario us definitions of perception following char
can be derived:

75
--- --- --
_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ TA XM AN N® ---
 PERCEPTION
76
tion is a cognitive process. C
1. Perc~p ' th way in w ognition is a bi~ of infonnat
hich people process th io
and mvo1ves e at information n
. •
2 Percept1.on1s asubJ' ective process and different pe op le perc ·
· event differently. Fo r ex eive sa
ample, th er e is anacc1'd • h f
supervisor may perceive it as en tm t e actoryanmed
carelessness of ""'.orkers an
workers perceive it as lack d contra!)
of safety and se cu nt y m
easures.
3. Perception is the intelle
ctua l process ~ w ~ ch an
information from enviro in di ~d ua l takes
nment, orgaruzes 1t an d
ob ta m s meaning
from it.
4. Perception is the psyc
hological process in w
feelings, actions or though hich an indivi~ual's
ts are affected by th e pe
environment. rception of their
5. Perception plays an im
portant role in determin
hu m ~ behavior because ing an d influencing
people behave on the ba
perceive. sis of what they
6. Perception plays an impo
rtant role in an individual
take more correct decisions 's life too. One can
if one's perception is clos
towards reality. er an d accurate

Process of Perception
Perceptual mechanism or
discussed as under: process involves three b
. l
asic e ements whi.ch are
1. Perceptual Selection:
It takes into considerat Itis the fundamental t
ion
appropriate for an individuonly thos t' s; ~p er ce pt ua lp ro ce ss .
. al. It is be s dun t .at ar
experience et~. ~t includes
two sub ste ase upon;<leas e releva nt
. and
ps: _ / , cues, mterest,
a. Recognition: Wha
t they are and wh t h
recognition to the informat
ion recei~e1. ey mean is pr
b. Selectivity : It is conclu oviding
ded the b .
In thi
s context, Dearborn andon asis of ne d d ·
study in which they take 23 Sirnps e an
businesi~xco ntl~cted a pe mterest.
departments i.e. 6 from sa rc
les departm:c~t~v? from eptual
department, 4 from fin different
neous departments. ance department ' d 8rom production
' an from miscella-
They asked them to find ou
find out only departmenta t organizational 0 b
· f · h • .
1:
Therefore, it can be conclul problem to whi h lem but they
ded that people secle t .ey re
m ormat1o n t at 1s rrnportant to them
. ctivelyplated to.
erceive
----------TAX
MANN®-
 PERCEPTION 77

P er ce pt ua l selectivity. c1ud~s Relevancy Principle which st ates

~
th at pe op le se le ct iv el lercehive in fo rm at io n th at is r elev an t to
np
th ei r nne ed s..F o r exar e, wb en r eading ne w sp ap er one is no t
di a4.1. J.

re a g en ti re ne w sp n~ er u t on ly th e se le ct ed ne w s which
br in gs in te re st to th er
ctors . iv ity
T he re ar e va ri oulfs-cfaon w hz c_ h af fe ct pe rc ep tu al se le ct ns,
a n d th es e ar e: se ep t,frB el ie fs, m ne r ne eds, ex pe ct at io
i c_
size, re pe ti ti on , famil an ty , eq ue nc y et c
It . ·
. pe rc ep tu al O rg an iz at io n :
l t is s of co nv er ti ng sele d
2 in fo rm at io n in to m ea ni ng fu at on e ca n m e s se out
_e rm s so th
it. P eople or ga ni ze se ec te or rn at io n W lt th e he lp of following
0
principles: -
P ri n ci pl . In ~hi. s pr in . si gn if ic an t p ar t
a. F ig u re -g ro u n d ci pl e th e
It e · lo ca ti on . O n th e
is k n o w n as fi u re an d
co nt ra ry , n o n !i nifi
ha s
p
d e
ar
~
t is
te
kn
sh
ow
ap
n
e
as gr ou nd . It ha s no
ca ~ t in te d
de fi ni te sh a e angd lo ca ti on . F or ex am pl e in a bo ok th e pr n as
ke
P
k en .as fi gu re an d th e o~ te r co ;e r is ta
contendts ar e ta
g ro u n .
It is th e te nd en cy to pe rc ei ve si m il ar
le :
b. G ~ ou pi n ~ p ri n ci p rs on s as a gr ou p. It is kn ow n as la w o f
th in g, _ob3ects an d pe on si m il ar it y an d pr ox im it y principle.
s up
gr ou pm g. It de pe nd il ar
p le : It is th e te nd en cy to pe rc ei ve si m
✓ c. S im il a ri ty
P ri n ci se d on th e pr in ci pl e o
f
o n gr ou p. It is ba
st im ul i as a co m m
va ri ou § things.
si m il ar fe at u re s o f gs n ea r to ea ch ot he r
at es th at th in
✓ d P ro x im it y
: T hi s pr in ci pl e st n ne ar ne ss pr in ci pl e. F or
er . It is ba se d o
ar e g ro u p ed to ge th ve d as go od be ca us e all th e pl ay er s
rc ei
ex am pl e, a te am is pe on e o r tw o b ad pl ay er s.
pt
ar e pl ay in g w el l ex ce e w he n pe op le fa ce d
cl os ur e pr in ci pl
di ng to es
/ e. C lo su re : A cc or fo rm at io n, th ey fill th e ga p by th em se lv
w it h in co m p le te in nt an d m o re m ea ni ng fu
l.
fo rm at io n re le va
to m ak e in w ho le th in gs de sp it e
pe rc ei ve ob je ct s as
It is th e te n d en cy to m is si ng fr o m vi ew. In or ga ni za ti on s
ar t is
th e fa ct th at so m e p e w h en th ey h av e in co m pl et e ab ou t
f cl os ur
m an ag er s u se la w o ak e pe rc ep ti on ab o u t employees.
h av e to m
em pl oy ee s b u t th ey cy to pe rc ei ve co m pl ex
ci pl e: It is th e te nd en
f. S im pl if ic at io n P riente rm s. W h en an in di vi du al is ov er bu rd en ed
p at te rn s in°to si m pl n th en th ey le av e less im po rt an t on
e
at io
w it h ex ce ss iv e in fo rm p o rt an t as pe ct s to m ak e it si m pl e.
n o n ly im
an d co n ce n tr at es o
AN N ® - - - - - -------
- - - TAXM
-- -- -- -- -- --- - -
 PERCEPTION
78
t tion . Interpretation is
3. perceptual Inteii~e ~ the last step in
es e~phasis on why thin
tual process ant lmterp gs are as th~er~
retation the process of
Without percalep ~ d J. ud perception~ a~
complete. An ys1s an gm en t in this process is based uponis n~
factors and these are: so~,
Hallo effect, First impressi . . . .
on, status, v1S1bility of tn .
uts etc.
Significance of Percepti
on
The significance of perc
eption can b e un de rs to
in the organization keep od in th~ se ns e th at ev
s on assessin~ others. eryone
of behaviour. Therefore P er ce pt 10 ~ a~e~ts the~sult
, understanding hum
understanding and cont
rollinghuman behaviou
an perception l'S tmpOfiaBt-in
is unportant m
per onrung vanous ty r in o r anizations. Perc
pe eption
set up. The significance s of activ ities in an organization~
of perception can be ex
of perception in various plained th ro ug h applic
activities in organizatio ation
1. Good industrial re
n. T he se activities are:
actions : Industrial re
relations between empl lations ca n b e defined
oyer and employees, be as
employees and betwee tween employees and
n employer and employ
organization share sJm er. If members of the
ilar perception_§_z then ~o
exist between them. O od
n the contrary, mispe industrial relations
industrial r~lat~ons r~ rceptions leads to bad
s~ting in conflict amon
order to mamtam realis g them. There£ore, in
tic
should be there among Industrial Relations compatible perceptions
employees.
2. Employeesselectio
ak al .n:Duringe•m.. pl- oy-mentinter<,.;e th
~ e perceptu Ju W S em . temew .
ndidates which mighters,
dg~ents ~bout the ca .l Y.l

mcorr:ect. Employmen
selection of employees.t mterview is an important criteria in the be
while selecting employThe manager may fa final
ees Selected empl ce
perception may becom pe
e s~rength or weaknoy rbceptual problems
Theref ore, perception play esee
s s ased on correct
. s a vi tal ro le in sel t. to an. orgaru•za ·
3. Performance ap
aisal: The performan ec ion of nght candidatn.
tio _
is totally dependprent on the accuracy of ce a .
e.
man~gers have wrong a ppraisal of employ
pe rc ep tio n about em mana er's . ees
formance appraisal is no
t good. pl ercept1on. If
4.. Job Satisfaction:
oyees, then eir per-
If em
envr.ronment,J.ob cultu.reploy.
ees' perception toward
app:ais~l and_ orga~at
, rm mediate boss, subordinsth e1. qo .
b, W
io n as. a whole is positive ~~:~ orking
havmgJob satisfaction P= rforrnance
may quit the organizatio otherwise not. Such job
n in frustration. di ssar 18 fi % 1P10Yee is
e ernployee
_ _ __ __
__ _ _ TAXM
ANN®- -------
 PERCEPTION 79
5. Absente.eism and Turnover• Ifa n
perc epti on abo ut the orgaiuz · . employee is having positive
as discusse d
in earl ier poi nts the n the ation and oth er factors
mig ht be red uce d othe rwi spro blems of absenteeism and turn ove r
. t bec aus e of hise not An orgaruz . . 1
· . atio n may ose valuable
emp1 oye e Jus
. . negative perception
. . . ·
6. Productivity: If employees es, responsibilities,
job profile in a positive ma! :rce ive thei rJobs, duti
can be incr.ea~ed.
On the con trar y, neg ativ e per c:r t~ien prod~ctivity
down pro duc tivi ty ver y lo ption abo ut Job rela ted aspects bnngs
W.

:actors influencing perception

. . . . .
>erception is infl uen ced by sev eral factors be divi ded rnto rnternal
ctors which are rela ted t O psycholo 01.calw~ dim
ch can
· f · di VI'du al and
.atemal factors whi ch are related too...external ens1 env
ons o an rn
ironment.
,x
tors in per ception •. Th e m . 1u d e
. t ern a1 f acto rs me
l. Inte rna l
alit fac .
p needs and desires,
e~son Y, exp ene nce , self-concept, knowledge,
atti tude etc. The se can be explained as:
a. ~tti tud e : Individuals with positive attitude
tends to perceive
negative
m ~ fav our able man ner than the individuals with
atti tud e who perceives in an unfavourable manner.
erienced
b. Experience and knowledge: The perception of exp
rienced or
and kno wle dge able persons is different from unexpe
Experience
less exp erie nce d and less knowledgeable persons.
and kno wle dge leads to accuracy in perception.
influence
c. Personality: The different personality traits has great
ple, pessimis-
on perc eive d beh avio ur of an individual. For exam
abo ut others
tic pers ona lity persons have negative perception
a positively
and optimistic type personalities see the world in
perceived man ner.
upon needs
d Needs and desires : Perception varies depending
satisfy their
and desires of individuals when people doesn't
king in ord er
needs and desires they are involved in wishful thin
only those
to satisfy them in imaginary world. People perceive
.
things which are related to their wishful thinking
depends on
e. Self-concept : The perception of an individual
he perceives
the self-concept. If one is aware about self, then
affects their
othe rs accurately. People's own characteristics
cept they
perc epti on abo ut other?. If they have positive self-con
rwise not.
tend to perceive others in a positive man ner othe

---------
- - - - - - -- - - TAXMANN®-
 PERCEPTION
80
f Expectations: It affects an individt:~'s perce ption about ?thets
These are the anticipations or intwt1ons abou~ the behaviolltof
certain person. For example, a softw are engin eer may expect
ignorance of technical aspec ts from huma n resou rce manager.
2. External factor s: These are relate d to extern al envir onme nt and the
external factors which can influe nce perce ption can be explained as·
a. Contr ast: The stimu li which is again st the exter nal surround.
ing enviro nmen t are more attent ion catch ing than the similar
ones. Contr ast is the uniqu eness which can be ~sed for getting
attention. For example, individuals dress ed differ ently than
others, bold headi ngs in the norm al text etc.
b. Frequ ency: Repe ated stimu lus is more attent ion catch ing than
the single one. For example, frequently repea ted advertisements
have great er impac t on custo mers than single ones.
c. Size : Size attrac ts the attent ion of an indivi dual. The bigger
the size, the highe r is the possibility of stimu lus to be perceived.
For example, full page adver tisem ents in the news paper are
more perce ived than the small ones.
d Inten sity: Inten sity helps in perce iving things. Adve rtiser uses
intens ity princi ple to gain custo mer's attrac tion i.e. loud sound
brigh t colour, brigh t lights are more notice d. '
e. Stat~ : Perce ption is also influe nced by status whic h is relative
~anking of a perso n than other s. High status peopl e exert high
mflue nce on emplo yee perce ption than low st t 1
. . . . . .. a us peop e.
f Visib•le traits . : V1s1bility of traits also infl . .
Certam traits are not visibl . . . uence s perce ption
e 1.e. loyalt y hone st .
c_ase the per_ception affect s directly. Vislbilit ofY e~c. ~ thi5
s1ble only with close perso ns whi h . y traits IS pos-
organ izatio nal settin gs. e Is not alway 'bl .
s poss1 e m
g. Natu re: Natu re of stimu lus that is to be .
perce ption of an indiv idual. For exam pleer iei~e d als? affect s
hund red word s and is more atten tion catchin~Icture IS worth
word s. g than mere ly
h. Situa tion/Cont ext: Conte xt is the envir orun
which one perce ives thing s. It may be a place elnt or situa tion in
. clifferent 1·t one perso
. 1s
perce ption n meet s aoth . xamp1e,
so· Fore
or in a cinem a hall. er In a temp le
 PERCEPTION
81
Perceptual errors and distort·ions
perceptual errors and distortions
about someone. Some of the err acts as hurdl
. es m • f .
ormrn .
g perception
process are as: ors and distortions in the perceptual
1. Response disposition: It ref . .
ceive familiar stimuli rather t~rs to an ~~vidual's tendency to per-
is more likely to perceive th an unfamiliar stimulus. An individual
familiar to him than the unfoseilip_ersons, objects or things which are
am ar ones
2. Perceptual defense : It refer .·
pects which create confli t s to screenmg out or leaving those as-
defense occurs when c and threat
. enmg· situati
· ·ons. perceptua1
O 1
and twisting new info ne ~aves important conflicting information
inaccurate if one leav rmatio
th . n for mat. ching old one. percept10n
. .
is
in forming it. es e mformation which might create conflict
3. Halo effect. : It is the proc
. ess of usmg
. smgle
. trait. or event m
. form-
mg perce. dption about any · di 'd al
lil VI u . In halo error people use short
cut to JU ge people quickly. It can have both positive and negative
effects. For
. example, at the tim' e of m · terview
· the mterv
· ·
iewer rates
the candidat~ on the basis of one aspect or trait i.e. smartness and
form perception that the candidate is capable of handling job profile
which he actually not.
tyStereotyping effect : Stereotyping error occurs when one judges a
person on the basis of features of the group which one belongs to.
In this error people do not recognize individuals with their unique
traits but perceive them on the group basis. It doesn't give in-depth
truth and give rise to distortion because sometimes perception may
be incorr.ect and based on false impression about a group. For exam-
ple, if a group is good then all the individuals are perceived as good
belonging to that group despite the fact that two or three individuals
are not good at performance. A famous saying goes like this, "A man
is known by the company he keeps." The merit of this error is that it
helps the perceiver to simplify th~ complexity of perceived world.
5. First impression : People form impression about others at the first
sight and evaluates others on this basis. It may be correct or incorrect
and hence leads to perceptual distortion or error. There is a saying,
"First impression is the last impression." If first impression is correct
then perception is correct about an individual otherwise not. Erasing
of first impression is not an easy task but it can be corrected by more
frequent interactions with the individual.

- - - - -- - - - - T A X M A N N ® - - - - - - -
----
 PERCEPTION
82
. erenc e occu rs when one judg es peo~ le on the b .
6. Jnferen~e. Inf t· For exam ple, a sales perso n 1s very bhll:as~r,
1: ...... ;t d mform a ion.
ru1.u e_ d h d orkin g but durin g the bus1es
. h
t our of
~'-lQ:ih
th d'<l1t~
his skills an ar w b h e a\, t
ail ble Here infer ence error can e t at a sales Per
is not av a · J ~.
son,
irresponsible one. .
7 01·ection : It is easy to judge peop le if w~ assum e !hat they are 8.
· ~il This tende ncy to attrib ute ones own traits and attribultnt·
ar to us. . . F I
of other people is called as proJection . or exam p e, if one wa%~
challenging work due to proJe ction error we assur e that others also
want the same.
8. Mental set : It is the tende ncy of react ing in a_ parti cular ~ay in a
given situation. It is an error becau se the perce iver has ~n inherent
tendency to respond eithe r favour~bl~ or unfav ourab le i._e. hard or
soft in appraising others. In orgar uzati ?n when w~ perceive others
on the basis of ment al set then perce ption may be maccurate.
9. Attribution: When people give cause and effec t expla natio n to their
behaviour is known as attribution. Attrib ution is impo rtant in per-
ception because it creates a tende ncy to visualize same behaviours
differently. For example, if a perso n doesn 't get prom otion , he may
attribute the reason not having closeness with the boss.

Attribution theory of perception

Attribution theory has been proposed by Kelly which sugge sts that it has \

been observed that different persons have differ ent views abou t why they
behave in a particular way. As and when people attac h cause and effect
explanation to their behaviour, it is know n as attrib ution . It is important
in percept!on because it creates a tendency to visualize same behaviour
patterns differ~ntly. According to Kelly, some individuals assign the reason
for an event lymg internally in them know n as intern al locus of control
while others may assign the reason l;ing outside, know n as external locus
of control.
The int~rnal lo~us .of control is related with intern al attributions i.e.
p~rception, motiv~tio?, skills etc. and external locus of control is related
with external attributions i.e. luck.
When one?~ serve sbeha viour ofoth erson etryto expla inhis/ herbe havio ur
by determlillilg _causes. For example, two employees are late in an office
by two hours. First explain it due to car repairs and second explain it due
to hospitalization of his wife. The manager visualizes both situations and
convinced by the second case because it is caused by external factors on
which the employee has no control and treat him as trustworthy.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ TAX MAN N®-- --==:::::::::::::::::::=::.i
iiiiiiiii=-- ~ -
 PERCE PTION 83

More over, the judg men t Depe nds upon follow ing facto rs: -
in
1. Disti !"cti v;n.e ss: If focus es atten tion on same b eh aviour al patterns
ur
a vane ty O ~Itua tions . For exam ple, Do one obser ve same b ehavio
in work settm gs and at party ?
sit-
2. Cons ensu s : Whe n beha viou r is diffe rent from other s in same
e
uatio n. For_ exam ple, i_n organ izatio ns diffe rent empl oyee s b ehav
diffe rentl y m a same situa tion.
i.e.
3. C~ns istency : We ob~e rve consi stenc y in beha vior acros s time
with the passa ge of trme the beha viou r of an indiv idual beco mes
consi stent .

Review Que stio ns

ved in
I. Defin e Perce ption and descr ibe the vario us eleme nts which are invol
its proce ss.
II. Expla in how perce ption is relate d with emot ions of an indiv
idual ?
Ill Expla in the signi fican ce of perce ption . Why it is impo rtant in
organ izatio nal
set up. Comm ent?
inter-
IV. Discu ss vario us facto rs influe ncing perce ption of an empl oyee while
acting with other s. ·
V. What do you mean by perce ptual select ivity? Discu ss vario us facto
rs whic h
influe nce this activi ty.
VI. What are the vario us perce ptual error s and distor tions an indiv
idual may
face durin g the proce ss of perce ption ?
disto r-
VII. Expla in the conc ept of perce ption ? What are the vario us error s and
tions in perce ption ? Discu ss.

Case Stud y
Perception
gradu ation
Rama n is the eldes t of four siblin gs. He has recen tly comp leted his post
His fathe r
from a reput ed gove rnme nt instit ute while his siblin g are still in schoo l.
famil y's
~as retire d from a priva te comp any job while his moth er is hous e wife. The
nds upon
financial condi tion is very poor and their survi val and well being depe
Rama n findin g job at the earlie st possi ble..
one has
~ama n appli ed for a job in many comp anies but after a long wait only
comp any is
finally called him for an interv iew. Toda y is the interv iew and since
le from
located very far away , Ram an starte d early from Hom e. He borro ws a bicyc
an isola ted
one of his friend s and starte d early for the job interv iew. As he cross es
ed. The
road, he notic es a perso n lying on the road and he has been serio usly injur
n may
perso n need imme diate medi cal help. If Ram an stops to help him, the perso

- -- -
- - - - - - -- - - - - - - TAXMANN®- - - - - - - - - - -
84 PERCEPTION

doe s not hel

survive but Raman will definitely miss the interview. "!f _Raman 1
will surely die. Ram an final ly save the life of the IDJu.red pers on and rep P he
person 011~
ager cons ider his case and con vinc ed by R.
late for the interview. The man
on humanity grounds. The man ager s perc eive the situ atio n in
posi tive m~n:rn
-.1..1.ter
·
Question
Q1. Analyze the problem in given case.
rvie w?
Q2. What should Ram an do in orde r to reac h on time for inte
Q3. If you were the Manager of the organization wha t wou
ld you do in Raman'
scase