Chapter 5

Digestion
 5.1
Carbohydrates,
生活

lipids, and proteins

Glossary nutrient 营养物质
nutrition 营养
mineral salt 无机盐
vitamin 维生素
carbohydrate/carb 糖类，碳水化合物
lipid 脂类
protein 蛋白质
fat 肥肉
oil 植物油
organic 有机物
inorganic 无机物
fibre 纤维素
Nutrients：
Water
inorganics
Minerals

Vitamins

Carbohydrates
organics
Lipids providing energy

Proteins
Fibre: provides bulk to food, keeping food moving easily through the gut.
Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
• Most of the molecules in living organisms fall into three categories:
• carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
• They all contain carbon, so they are described as organic molecules

Molecule Chemical elements Small unit Function

Carbohydrate C, H, O Glucose Energy supply

Protein C, H, O, N, S Amino acid Building blocks

Glycerol,
Lipid C,H, O, P Energy storage
Fatty acid
1 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates - the main source of energy
simple carbs complex carbs

glucose fructose rice potato

sucrose maltose bread sweet potato

1 Carbohydrates
All carbohydrates are made up of units of sugar (C6H12O6).
Simple carbs contain only one or two units of sugar.
• Glucose and fructose are monosaccharides.
• Maltose and sucrose are disaccharides.
• Maltose = glucose + glucose
• Sucrose = glucose + fructose
1 Carbohydrates
Complex carbs are made up of long
chains of simple sugar units bonded
together.
Starch, glycogen and cellulose are
complex sugars(polysaccharide).

• Starch is the energy stores in plant cells.

• Glycogen is the short-term energy stores in animal cells.
• In liver and muscle cells.
• Cellulose is the main component of cell wall in plant cells.
 Food sources:
2 Lipids
- energy store
- make up the cell membrane,
some hormones and the nervous
system oil butter

- include fats(solids) and oils(liquids)

- insulation and protection
- insoluble in water

fat meat nuts

2 Lipids

• Lipids are made up of three molecules of fatty acids and a

molecule of glycerol.
3 Proteins
Functions:
- build up the cells and tissues(repair and renew )
- act as hormones, e.g. insulin
- act as antibodies, which destroy pathogens and are part of the
immune system
- act as enzymes, which are the catalysts in the cells.
Food sources:

meat egg&milk beans fish

3 Proteins
A protein is made up of long chains of amino acids.
• There are 20 different amino acids.
• They have same basic structure with different R group.
3 Proteins
• Amino acids join together into long chains called peptide.
• Peptide chains are folded, coiled, and twisted to form specific 3-D shapes that
are related to their different functions (e.g., as enzymes, antibodies, or hormones).
• The bonds that hold the proteins in these 3-D shapes are very sensitive to
temperature and pH, and can easily be broken.
• If the structure is changed, the protein is denatured(no longer function).
Inquiry: Food test
Inquiry: Food test
Inquiry: Food test
5.2 Catalysts and enzymes
Enzyme speeds up reaction
• Catalyst:
is a substance that speeds up a chemical
reaction, but is not changed itself.
• Enzymes:
are biological catalysts in organisms.
After 24 hours
(Features: specific, diverse, recycled)

products
substrate

enzyme enzyme
Enzymes are specific

• Enzymes are proteins with specific

shapes.
• This special shape allows other molecules
(substrates) to fit into the enzyme protein,
scientists call this part of enzyme as
active site.

• Different enzymes catalyse(speed up) specific types of reaction.

E.g.: X-enzyme digests X.
• Each of your cells can have a hundred or more chemical reactions going on
within it at one time, without one reaction interfering with another.
 Enzymes are specific

How do enzyme work?

• The substrate fits into the active site of the enzyme.
• The substrate binds to the active site.
• The reaction takes place rapidly, and the products are released from the
surface of the enzyme.
Lock-and-key mechanism:
• The substrate (reactant) fits into the active site of the enzyme, like a lock
and key.
Enzymes are diverse

Enzymes are involved in:

• Building large molecules from lots of smaller ones.
• E.g.: glucose → starch/ cellulose/ glycogen
• Changing one molecule into another.
• E.g.: glucose → fructose, amino acid A → amino acid B
• Breaking down large molecule into smaller ones.
• E.g.: protein → amino acids
lipids → glycerol and fatty acids
starch → glucose
Enzyme speeds up reaction

Chemical
bond

How do enzymes speed up reactions?

• For chemicals to react, they need to collide with
sufficient energy to break the chemical bonds that
hold the molecules together.
This graph shows you how using an enzyme
reduces the energy input needed for a reaction. • Enzymes lower the energy needed to break the
bonds, which is how they speed up the reactions
(because a higher proportion of molecules have
sufficient energy to react).
5.3 Factors affecting
enzyme action

Sugar A Sugar A

Sugar B Sugar B
Enzyme Starch
Enzyme is affected by temperature and pH

• The bonds that hold the proteins in their 3-D shapes are very sensitive to
temperature and pH, and can easily be broken.
• If this happens, the shape of the protein is lost and it may not function any
more in your cells. The protein is denatured.
• Enzymes are proteins.
• The shape of an enzyme is vital for the functioning of the enzyme.
• Enzyme activity is affected by temperature and pH.

- The 3-D structure of

- Amino acids enzyme.
Determine The function of
Determine the
- The bond - The shape of the enzyme
between AAs activity site.
Effect of temperature on enzyme

High temperatures denature the enzyme,

changing the shape of the active site:
• The rate of an enzyme-controlled
reaction increases as the temperature
rises until the optimum temperature is
reached.
• After this, the high temperature breaks
the bonds of the enzyme.
• The shape of the active site changes.
The substrate will no longer fit in the
active site. The enzyme has been
denatured.
• The rate of the reaction drops
dramatically.
Effect of temperature on enzyme

• Optimum temperature: this is when the

reaction works fastest.
• For most organisms, 40℃ is the optimum.
• For humans, 37°C is the optimum.
• Once your body temperature reaches
about 41°C, your enzymes start to be
denatured and you will soon die.
Effect of pH on enzyme

The pH is too high or too low

Break the bonds

Enzyme distorts and lose its shape.

The active site shape is lost.

Substrate cannot fit into the active site.

The rate of the activity decreases.
Effect of temperature on enzyme

• Moving away from the

optimum pH results in the
gradual loss of activity as
active site becomes
distorted.

• At extreme pH(furthest
from optimum), enzymes
are completely denatured.
Different enzymes work best at different pH levels:
• Stomach has a lower optimum pH (pH 2).
• Small intestine has a higher optimum pH(pH 8 or 9).
• The optimum pH for most enzymes is 7.
 Breaking down protein
You can see the effect of acid on the
protease found in the stomach (called
pepsin) quite simply.

Set up three test tubes: one containing

stomach protease, one containing
hydrochloric acid, and one containing a
mixture of the two.

Keep them at body temperature in a

water bath. Add a similar-sized chunk of
meat to all three of them. Set up a
webcam and watch for a few hours to
see what happens.
Enzyme works fastest in optimum pH.
The digestive enzymes
Digestive juices are produced by
specialised cells in glands and in the
lining of the gut. Digestive enzymes
catalyse the breakdown of large
molecules into smaller ones. Salivary glands

Liver
Gastric glands
Pancreas
Intestinal glands
5.4

The Digestive
System
Glossary
digestive system 消化系统 salivary gland 唾液腺
alimentary canal 消化管 gastric gland 胃腺
digestive gland 消化腺 liver 肝脏
pharynx 咽 gall bladder 胆囊
esophagus 食管 pancreas 胰腺
stomach 胃 intestinal gland 肠腺
small intestine 小肠 peristalsis 蠕动
large intestine 大肠 physical digestion 物理性消化
anus 肛门 chemical digestion 化学性消化
digestion 消化
absorption 吸收
Glossary
catalyst 催化剂 protease 蛋白酶
enzyme 酶 peptide 肽
gastric juice 胃液 peptidase 肽酶
pancreatic juice 胰液 pepsin 胃蛋白酶
intestinal juice 肠液 trypsin 胰蛋白酶
bile 胆汁 lipase 脂肪酶
amylase 淀粉酶 amino acid 氨基酸
maltose 麦芽糖 fat droplet 脂肪微滴
maltase 麦芽糖酶 fatty acid 脂肪酸
hydrochloric acid 盐酸 glycerol 甘油
circular fold 环形皱襞 emulsify 乳化
villus 小肠绒毛 microvilli 小肠微绒毛
villi pl. visking tubing 透析袋
Digestive system

Mouth ① Salivary
⑧ glands
Pharynx ②
Esophagus ③
⑨ Liver

Gastric
Stomach ④ ⑩ glands
Small
intestine
⑪ Pancreas
⑤
Large ⑥ ⑫ Intestinal
intestine glands

Anus ⑦ Liver：the largest digestive gland

Physical digestion:
- is the breakdown of food into smaller pieces
without change to the food molecules
- e.g.: chewing, churning, peristalsis.
 cell
membrane

starch
molecule
Chemical digestion:
- is the breakdown of larger insoluble molecules into smaller soluble
molecules that can be absorbed by body cells.
- requires enzymes.
 Digestion
Chemical digestion:
• Most of your enzymes work inside the
cells of your body, digestive enzymes
work outside the cells.
• X-ase digests X.

Physical digestion:
• increases the surface area of
food for enzymes to work on.
• mixes food with the digestive
juices.
X-ase digests X.

Small intestine is
the main place of
digestion.
Small intestine is the main organ for digestion, since it contains three
types of digestive juices: bile, pancreatic juice, and intestinal juice.
And they provide all digestive enzymes we need.

The liver releases bile via

duct, Bile has no digestive
liver enzymes and is stored in
Stores bile. the gall bladder.
gall bladder
pancreas
duodenum The pancreas releases
pancreatic juice via duct, the
juice contains enzymes that
small intestine digest starch, proteins and fats.
 Digestive juice

Gland Juice Enzyme Function site

salivary glands saliva amylase mouth

gastric gland gastric juice pepsin stomach

pancreas pancreatic amylase, trypsin, small intestine

juice lipase
intestinal intestinal maltase, peptidase, small intestine
glands juice lipase
liver bile no enzyme small intestine
 Gut Digestion Absorption

Mouth

Pharynx,
esophagus

Stomach

Small
intestine

Large
intestine
 Egestion

In the large intestine(1.5m), undigested

food forms faeces, which are expelled
through the anus.

Both big intestine and anus can’t

digest food.
Making digestion efficient
The role of hydrochloric acid(HCl)
• HCl is one of the gastric juice.
• It provides acid conditions, allowing pepsin
to work most effectively.
• It kills bacteria in food.
• It denatures the enzymes in their cells.

The role of bile

• It neutralises the acid as food comes into the small
intestine from the stomach.
• It provides the alkaline conditions necessary for the
enzymes in the small intestine to work most effectively.
• It emulsifies fats into fat droplets, which increases the
surface area for lipase to act on, increasing the rate of
digestion.
Health
Stomach ulcer:
• Your stomach produces a thick layer of mucus.
This coats your stomach walls and protects them
from being digested by the acid and the enzymes.
• When the protective mucus is lost, the lining of
the stomach will be attacked by the acid and
pepsin, which is very painful.

Gall stones:
• Sometimes gall stones form, which can block the
gall bladder and bile ducts.
• They can also stop bile being released onto the
food in the small intestine, which reduces the
efficiency of digestion.
5.6

Exchange in the
gut
Small intestine is the main organ for absorption
• Your body cells need products of digestion to provide fuel for respiration and the
building blocks for growth and repair.
• Absorption is the movement of digested food molecules from the digestive system
into the blood (glucose and amino acids) and lymph (fatty acids and glycerol)

1 Folds, villi and microvilli

increase the surface area of
the small intestine for
diffusion largely .

microvillus
[图片]

villus
circular
folds
Thin wall of villus and capillary:
allows rapid diffusion of nutrients

• The lining of the small intestine has

an excellent blood supply.
• This carries away the digested food
molecules as soon as they have
diffused from one side to the other.
• So, a steep concentration gradient is
maintained all the time,
Adaptations of small intestine for absorption

1 Large surface 2 Thin wall 3 Rich blood

supply
Circular folds, villi and (only one cell thick) produces a steep
microvilli increase the so there is only a concentration
surface area for short distance across
diffusion and active which diffusion takes gradient for efficient
transport(glucose). place. diffusion.
Making use of enzymes
Enzymes in the home
Many people use biological detergents to remove stains from their clothes.
Biological washing powders contain proteases and lipases.
Making use of enzymes
Enzymes in industry
Making use of enzymes
Enzymes in industry
• Per-digesting baby foods:
proteases are used to make soft baby food.
• Sugar syrup:
carbohydrases are used to convert starch to glucose.
• Lactose-free milk:
lactase are used to digest lactose.
Making use of enzymes
The advantages and disadvantages of
using enzymes
• Enzyme has much higher activities than
chemical catalyst
• It is more environmental friendly and high
commercial productivity
• More than 500 enzymes now have commercial
uses.
Advantages
• They are specific so they only catalyse the reaction you want them to.
• Using lower temperatures and pressures means a lower cost as it saves
energy.
• Enzymes work for along time so after the initial cost of buying them you
can continually use them.
• They are biodegradable and therefore cause less environmental pollution.
Disadvantages
• Some people can develop allergies to the enzymes (e.g. biological washing
powders)
• The conditions they work in must be tightly controlled
• Enzymes can be denatured by even a small increase in temperature
• They are also susceptible to poisons and changes in pH.
• Enzymes can be expensive to produce
• Contamination of the enzyme with other substances can affect the reaction