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Contents

https://www.scribd.com/presentation/643928141/Introduction-to-Green-Tribology-pptx

https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/green-tribology-237475278/237475278

Today, environmental and energy problems have become extremely serious

and survival on a global scale. Scientists in all fields pay great attention to
solving these problems. By this logic, the boom of recent decades, associated
with the formation and development of nanotechnologies, including in
relation to tribology and tribotechnics [1, 2].
It is noticeable that tribology has continuously developed into new phases.
After opening in 1956, the effect of selective transfer (ST) (“zero-wear”
effect) during friction, in tribology for the first time, was a basis to build the
whole new paradigm of “friction without wear with minimal energy
consumption”, which was denied by all previous practical experience in
operating movable coupling and by theoretical constructions of science of the
friction and wear solids. At the same time, by the beginning of this century,
the concept of “green tribology” was formed, which actually lists all the
achievements in the study of the mechanisms of wearlessness (zero-wear)
and super-anti-friction, as well as in the development of lubricants for their
implementation in practice [3, 4]. In the 21st century and beyond, green
tribology is expected to play an increasingly important role and become the
key and strategies for solving a series of global problems in energy,
environment and resources.
In recent years, there has been a rapid growth in research activities in green
tribology field. A fairly large number of articles, world conference reports
and academic books in related to this area have been published
[2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. However, there are still few
publications that expounded the concepts, technological connotations,
principles and disciplinary features of green tribology in precise,
comprehensive definition and in an all-round way. The first scientific work
completely devoted to green tribology, which emphasized the scientific rather
than the economic and social aspects was published by M. Nosonovsky and
B. Bhushan in 2010 [5].

Being a new field of tribology still in its infancy, an accurate understanding

of the fundamentals of green tribology is important from both a scientific and
practical point of view. In this regard, the aim of this work is to clarify the
fundamental scientific and technological foundations of green tribology
based on the analysis and generalization of the research achievements of
green tribology.

Green tribology: concept, goal and role

It has been noted that the concepts in the main development direction of
tribology are historically changed as follows (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Tribology concepts in the new main direction of development [1, 2].

Nowadays, the term “green tribology” has become part of the engineering
dictionary. Green tribology is an emerging and actual area in tribological
science with more focus on energy saving and environmental protection.
Although green tribology is a fairly new concept; however, it already plays
an important role in ensuring that all industrial systems can be able to
function in an environmentally friendly manner. Green tribology is especially
tuned to sustaining an ecological balance and biological effects on contact
between surface systems from different materials. Green tribology ensures
that any process of friction and wear is as environmentally friendly as
possible. Thus, green tribology can be defined as an interdisciplinary field
attributed to the broad induction of various concepts such as energy,
materials science, green lubrication, and environmental science [8, 9, 10, 11].

We have known the concept of green engineering for a long time. The United
States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) defines green engineering
as “the design, commercialization and application of processes and products
that technically and economically reduce sources of pollution and risks that
adversely affect human health and the environment”. Speaking of green
tribology, one cannot ignore the terms “Green Technology”, “Green
Engineering”, “Green Metalworking”, etc., but the first association and
historically, the first green science, as applied to science naturally, was
“Green Chemistry”. Green engineering and green chemistry are two closely
related fields of green tribology that are actively engaged by researchers
today [12, 13].

Specifically, green tribology has been identified as an area of engineering

that could go beyond its original remit of improving efficiency by minimizing
wear and friction in tribological processes to save energy and resources,
minimize noise pollution, develop new bio-lubricants. In general, green
tribology gives a positive contribution in reducing environmental harm.
Inevitably, the term “green tribology” is spoken of in the context of quality of
life. According to professor’s Zhang opinion [2]: “Thus, the concepts and
objectives of green tribology might be summarized into 3L + 1H, namely,
low energy consumption, low discharge (CO2), low environmental cost, and
high quality of life. The mission of green tribology is researching and
developing tribological technologies to reach the main objectives, thus
making the sustained artificial ecosystems of the tribological parts and tribo-
systems in the course of a lifecycle”.

Emilia Assenova and her colleagues in their work “Green tribology and
quality of life” [14] reported: “Nowadays, losses resulting from ignorance of
tribology amount to about 6% of the gross national product (GNP) in the
United States alone. This figure is around USD 900 milliard annually. As far
as China is concerned, they could save above USD 40 milliard per year by
the application of green tribology or more than 1.5% of the GNP”. It is clear
that the basic goals of green tribology are “friction control, wear reduction
and improved lubrication”. Nevertheless, from a socio-economic point of
view, it is possible to extend and confirm that the goal and essence of
research works in the field of green tribology is to save material resources,
improve energy efficiency, decrease emissions, shock absorption, investigate
and apply novel natural bio- and eco-lubricants as well as to reduce the
harmful effects of technical systems on the environment, and consequently,
improve the quality and welfare of society. All advances in green tribology
will lead to a high economic efficiency due to reduced waste and increased
equipment service life, improved technological and environmental balance,
decreased carbon footprint of mechanical systems, as a result, mitigate
climate changes, and improve overall sustainability and safety in human life
[15].

Green tribology will play an irreplaceable role in saving energy, material

resources and environment. Trusted researches reveal that about 23% of
energy consumption in the world today is the result of inefficient
performance of tribological systems (Figure 2) [16]. In this case,
approximately 18–20% of the energy is consumed to solve friction problems,
and the remaining 3–5% is used to rebuild, repair and replace parts worn out
due to wear and other failures associated with wear. The researchers
estimated that by applying advances in green tribology in terms of new
surfaces, materials and lubrication technologies, the total global energy loss
in tribological systems could be decreased by 18% in the next 8 years and up
to 40% in the next 15 years. An additional advantage of environmentally
friendly green tribology is a significant reduction in carbon dioxide emissions
and economic costs.

Figure 2.

Energy consumption, costs and CO2 emissions due to inefficient performance of tribological
systems globally [16].
In works [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23] the researchers applied green tribology
concept using new class of eco-friendly lubricants and materials for
manufacturing anti-friction contact surfaces, as a result of which their
coefficient of friction is significantly reduced while the wear resistance and
longevity are greatly increased.
A survey of gross energy consumption in the United States in four main
areas: transportation, turbomachinery, power generation and industrial
applications showed that savings of about 11% are achieved thanks to recent
developments in lubrication and green tribology [24]. Chinese estimated that
they could save more than $ 40 billion per year by applying advances in
green tribology [25].
If we look at the share of wind energy in the total installed electricity
capacity in Europe over the last decade, according to the European Wind
Energy Association, it has increased more than quadrupled from 2.2% in
2000 to 10.5% in 2011 thanks to new developments in tribology, in particular
as a result of the application of green tribology [26].

Many tribological problems can be put under the umbrella of “green

tribology” and are mutually beneficial to each other. These problems are
primary focus point of researchers and engineers, which include tribological
technology that mimics living nature (biomimetic surfaces) and thus is
expected to be environment-friendly, the friction and wear control that is
important for energy conservation and conversion, environmental aspects of
lubrication and surface modification techniques. These problems and aspects
will be clarified in more detail in the next section.

. Green tribology: principles, focus areas, and challenges

3.1 Principles of green tribology

As noted above, the interdisciplinary nature of green tribology often

integrates aspects of chemical engineering and materials science in order to
completely understand both chemistry and mechanics of surface. Since
tribology is an interdisciplinary field, the principles of green engineering and
green chemistry should also apply to green tribology. However, tribology
includes not only chemistry of surfaces, but also other aspects related to the
mechanics and physics of surfaces, there is a need to modify these principles.
Formulated by Paul Anastas in 1991, the 12 principles of green chemistry
into a constant amount (12) upgraded to the 12 principles of green
engineering [27, 28], and later, in the 12 principles of green tribology [1]
mapped in Table 1.
Green tribology

 Inherent rather than

 Prevention.
circumstantial.
 Atom Economy.
 Prevention instead of
 Less Hazardous  Minimization of heat and
treatment.
Chemical Syntheses. dissipation.
 Design for separation.
 Designing Safer  Minimization of wear.
 Maximize mass, energy,
Chemicals.  Reduction or complete elimina
space, and time efficiency.
 Safer Solvents and lubrication and self-lubrication.
 Output-pulled versus input-
Auxiliaries.  Natural lubrication.
pushed.
 Design for Energy  Biodegradable lubrication.
 Conserve complexity.
Efficiency.  Sustainable chemistry and
 Durability rather than
 Reduce Derivatives. engineering principles.
immortality.
 Catalysis.  Biomimetic approach.
 Meet need, minimize excess.
 Design for Degradation.  Surface texturing.
 Minimize material diversity.
 Real-time analysis for  Environmental implications of co
 Integrate local material and
Pollution.  Design for degradation.
energy flows.
 Prevention.  Real-time monitoring.
 Design for commercial
 Inherently Safer.  Sustainable energy applications.
“afterlife”.
 Chemistry for Accident
 Renewable rather than
Prevention.
depleting.

Table 1.
12 principles of green chemistry, green machine building and green tribology.

These principles of green tribology can be assorted into 5 following groups: Friction, Wear,
Lubrication, Material and surface production and treatment, and Tribology in the renewable
energy sources.

Friction (minimization of heat and energy dissipation). Friction is the main source of energy
dissipation, most of which is converted to heat. Controlling and minimizing friction, which
results in both energy savings and the prevention of damage to the environment owing to heat
pollution, is a top priority for green tribology. In addition, the friction in mechanical systems that
operate on friction, such as clutches and brakes, also has to be well optimized.

Wear (minimization of wear). This is the second most important task of green tribology. In most
technological processes, wear is undesirable, it decreases the lifetime of elements/machine and
creates the problems of their recycling/replacements which in turn leads to environmental
damage by way of the emission. Wear can also lead to a large waste of material resources. In
addition, due to wear, debris in the form of particles is generated, which pollutes the environment
and in certain situations can be dangerous to humans.

Lubrication.Reduction or complete elimination of lubrication and self-lubrication. Lubrication

is at the forefront of tribology as it reduces friction and wear. However, lubrication is also
hazardous to the environment. It is desirable to reduce the use of lubricants or achieve a self-
lubrication regime when no external lubrication is required. Tribological systems in living nature
often operate in the self-lubricating mode. For example, the joints form a closed, self-sufficient
system. Green tribology prompted researchers to think about self-lubricating materials, which
also eliminated the external supply of lubricants.

Natural lubrication. In green tribology Natural lubricants such as vegetable oils should be used
in cases when possible, since they are eco-friendly.

Biodegradable lubrication. Biodegradable lubricants should also be used when possible to avoid
environmental pollution. In particular, water lubrication is an area that has attracted the attention
of tribologists in recent years. Lubrication with natural oils is another good option.

Material and surface production and treatment. Sustainable chemistry and green engineering
principles. These principles should be observed in the production of new materials, elements,
parts, machines for tribological applications, coatings and lubricants.

Biomimetic approach. Wherever possible, biomimetic surfaces and materials, as well as other
biomimetic and biological approaches, should be applied as they tend to be more
environmentally friendly. Common engineered surfaces have occasional roughness, which
makes friction and wear extremely difficult to overcome. On the other hand, many biological
functional surfaces have complex structures with hierarchical roughness that determines their
good properties for tribological systems.

Surface texturing. This technology should be used to provides a way to control many surface
properties relevant to making tribo-systems more ecologically friendly.

Environmental implications of coatings. Environmental implications of coatings and other

methods of surface modification (texturing, depositions, etc.) should be studied and taken into
consideration.

Design for degradation. The ultimate degradation and utilization of contact surfaces, coatings,
and tribological components should be considered during design.

Real-time monitoring. Tribological systems should be analyzed and monitored during operation
to prevent the formation of hazardous substances.

Renewable energy sources (Sustainable energy applications). Sustainable energy applications

should be a priority direction for tribological design, as well as engineering design in general.
Correct observation of discussed above principles of green tribology can greatly reduce the
environmental impact of tribological process’s products, assist economic development and,
consequently, improve respectively the quality of life.

3.2 Focus areas of green tribology

Green tribology includes 3 main areas [1, 2, 5, 14], these are (1) Biomimetics (imitating living
nature in order to solve complex human problems) and self-lubricating materials/surfaces; (2)
Biodegradable and environmentally friendly lubrication and materials; and (3) Renewable and/or
sustainable sources of energy. These 3 focus areas of green tribology aim to ensure a limited
impact of tribological processes on the environment and human health. Below is a brief
description and discussion about the features, contents, aspects of these areas and their relevance
to green tribology.

Biomimetic and self-lubricating materials/surfaces . This is an important area of green

tribology, the main task of which is the development and application of tribological technologies
that mimic living nature (biomimetic surfaces). Many biological materials have amazing
properties (superhydrophobicity, self-cleaning, self-healing, high adhesion, reversible adhesion,
high mechanical strength, antireflection, etc.) that can hardly be achieved by conventional
engineering methods. These properties of biological and biomimetic materials are reached due to
their composite structure and hierarchical multiscale organization. It is noted that hierarchical
organization and the ability of biological systems to grow and adapt also ensure a natural
mechanism for the repair or healing of insignificant damage in the material. Biomimetic
materials are also usually environmentally friendly in a natural way, since they are a natural part
of the ecosystem. For this reason, the biomimetic approach in green tribology is especially
promising.

In the field of biomimetic surfaces, a number of typical ideas have been proposed: (1) The lotus
effect based non-adhesive surfaces; (2) The Gecko effect based materials with the ability of
specially structured hierarchical surfaces to exhibit controlled adhesion; (3) Fish-scale effect
based micro-structured surfaces for underwater applications, including easy flow due to
boundary slip, the suppression of turbulence and anti-biofouling; (4) Oleophobic surfaces
capable of repelling organic liquids; (5) Microtextured surfaces for de-icing and anti-icing; (6)
Various biomimetic microtextured surfaces to control friction, wear and lubrication; (7) Self-
lubricating surfaces, using various principles, including the ability for friction-induced self-
organization; (8) Self-repairing surfaces and materials, which are able to heal minor damage
(cracks, voids); (9) The “sand fish” lizard effect, able to dive and “swim” in loose sand due to
special electromechanical properties of its scale; (10) Nanocomposite materials tailored in such
way that they can produce required surface properties, such as self-cleaning, self-lubrication,
and self-healing.

Figure 3 shows typical biological and biomimetic surfaces with hair or pillar like surface
structures for various functions (Figure 3) [29]. Recently, the mechanisms of sand erosion
resistance of the desert scorpion were studied to improve the erosion resistance of components in
tribo-systems [30]. It was found that the biological surfaces used for sand erosion resistance of
the desert scorpion were built by the special micro-textures such as bumps and grooves.
Figure 3.

Typical biological and biomimetic surfaces with hair or pillar like surface structures for various
functions. (a) The nano to micro hierarchical hair-like surface structure of geckos’ feet for strong
adhesion; (b) The nano to micro hierarchical structure of plant leaves for superhydrophobic
dewetting properties. (c) The microfabricated polyimide biomimetic hairs bunching together
under the van der Waals interaction [29].

In works [31, 32, 33], the authors presented overview and studies of various biomimetic
microtextured surfaces to control friction, wear and lubrication. Generally, biomimetic
techniques have provided the different surface structures with strong adhesion, high hydrophobic
properties, high coefficient of friction, self-lubrication, etc., which can be prospectively applied
in green tribology field.
Biodegradable and environmentally friendly lubrication and materials. Advanced
biomimetics is biomimicry used to identify best practices from nature on key tribological issues,
such as finding improved lubrication solutions [1, 14, 34]. Natural lubrication is very effective at
providing low coefficients of friction even at low speeds, and relies entirely on water as the base
component, the effectiveness of which is ensured by the presence of many dissolved
biomolecules.
Imitating such constructs of molecules, understanding their tribological performance is helpful.
An example is the process of imitating natural lubricants, e.g. glycoproteins in synovial fluid
[32]. By imitating this mechanism in the laboratory, molecules were synthesized that
spontaneously produce polymer brushes on the surface. Brushes are formed on surfaces in an
aqueous medium when end-grafted, water-soluble polymers are located at distance about one
radius of gyration (Rg) from each other (Figure 4) [34] and stretch to maximize their interaction
with water while reducing their interaction with each other.

Figure 4.

The formation of polymer brushes on surfaces [34].

The use of lubricants in machine components poses a serious threat to the environment, since
they released into the environment not only contain harmful toxic waste but also contain the
wear debris from machine parts. Development of environmentally acceptable lubricant products
is one of priority direction in green tribology. Vegetable oils and animal fats have been used as
lubricants for a very long time throughout human history. However, following the industrial
revolution and the advent of lubricants made from mineral oils, bio-based lubricants have again
come to be seen as an environmentally alternative for lubricant production and have only become
effective in recent decades.

Researchers confirmed that properly formulated bio-lubricants are comparable with mineral
based lubricants, so they could be used as an adequate substitution in appropriate cases.
Vegetable-oil-based or animal-fat-based lubricants are potentially biodegradable that can be used
for engines, hydraulic and metal-cutting applications. Vegetable oils i.e. corn, soybean and
coconut oil, can have excellent lubricity, far superior than that of mineral oil [12, 14]. In general,
the advantages of using bio-lubricants are non-toxic, biodegradable, renewable resources, good
lubricity and high viscosity indices (Table 2) [35], while disadvantages are: oxidative instability,
poor low temperature properties, and hydrolytic instability. Applying chemical modification or
additives can address these problems of bio-lubricants.
Oil type Engine oil Coconut oil Palm oil

CO2 (%) 4.5 2.9 3.4

Oil type Engine oil Coconut oil Palm oil

CO (%) 0.92 0.67 0.73

Table 2.
The percentage content of CO and CO 2 in exhaust gas lubricated with regular mineral and
vegetable oils [35].

In the area of eco-friendly and biodegradable lubrication and materials we should also notice
other following interesting ideas:

Hyrdo-lubrication. These are homogeneous lubricants containing water as a functional

component. Tribological study and case analyses of the elastomeric bearings lubricated with
seawater for marine propeller shaft systems were conducted [36].
Ionic liquids for green molecular lubrication. Ionic liquids (ILs) have been explored as
lubricants for various device applications due to their excellent electrical conductivity as well as
good thermal conductivity, where the latter allows frictional heating dissipation [37].
Powder lubrication. Generally, these tend to be much more eco-friendly than the traditional
liquid lubricants. Recent researches show that when using some nanoscale additives, such as
boric acid and MoS2 nanopowders to natural oils, their lubricity characteristics are significantly
improved [38].
New eco-friendly coating materials for tribological applications. Recently, special attention has
been paid to the development of “green” coatings in tribo-systems, which have improved
tribological properties (low friction coefficient, high wear resistance), and therefore, not
releasing a lot of worn-out waste into the environment, they are environmentally friendly
[1, 2, 6].

Tribology in the Renewable Energy Sources (RES). Controlling and minimizing of friction
and wear in tribology is important for energy and resources conservation. Sustainable energy
applications have become priority of the tribological design, as well as an important area of
green tribology. In contrast to the biomimetic approach and environmentally friendly lubrication,
RES is not about manufacturing or operation, but about the application of the tribological system
in production of renewable eco-friendly energies such as wind energy, marine energy, solar
energy, geothermal energy, and so on.

In work [39] Wood et al. carried out the tribological studies on renewable sources of energy,
namely three green energy systems: wind, tidal and wave machines. The authors also highlighted
the role of design and durability for such large scale engineering systems from sustainability
point of view. These systems are sensitive to operation and maintenance costs and thus depend
on functioning tribological parts and lubrication. It was noted that weight reduction to reduce
tribological and gravity loads would be beneficial for machines designs. Attention should also be
paid to the knowing of dynamic loads to predict fatigue life and tribological loads on wind, tidal
and wave machines. Structures and properties of tribological components must be considered for
the inherent lack of stiffness of the turbines and wave devices.
Wind turbines have fairly many specific problems related to their tribology, which involve water
contamination, electric arcing on generator bearings, wear of the main shaft and gearbox
bearings and gears, the erosion of blades due to solid particles, cavitation, rain, hail stones, etc.
The most commonly observed and discussed tribological problems in wind turbines are in the
transmission system, in the gearbox. They are mainly the result of insufficient lubrication and/or
lack of regular maintenance under extreme operating conditions. The solution to this problem is
the use of lubricants and/or materials with improved tribological characteristics [40]. REWITEC
nano-coatings is a metal treatment that can be applied to gearboxes and bearings during regular
operation for restoration of its efficiency and economy. When examining certain micro-pitting
areas on the metal surfaces of a wind turbine gear before applying REWITEC and after 6 months
of treatment, it was found that the surface damage was filled and the asperities were smoothed
out, and thus the surfaces became smoother with higher surface contact area (Figure 5) [2].

Figure 5.

3D-images of the metal surface before and after treatment with REWITEC 6 months [2].

Tidal power turbines are another important way of producing renewable energy. Besides tidal,
the ocean water flow and wave energy and river flow energy (without dams) can be used with
the application of special turbines, which provides the same direction of rotation independent of
the direction of the current flow. Production processes of tidal, water flow and wave energy
involve certain specific tribological problems such as lubrication of machine components (by
seawater, oils, and greases), their erosion, corrosion, and biofouling, as well as the interaction
between these modes of damage [1, 39].
Geothermal energy plants are widely used now, however, their application is limited to the
geographical areas at the edges of tectonic plates. There are several specific tribological issues
related to the geothermal energy sources which are discussed in the literature [1, 5, 15, 39].
3.3 Challenges of green tribology

Green tribology as a new area of tribology has a number of challenges. One obvious problem is
integration, synergy of its above mentioned focus areas so that they can benefit from each other.
Obviously, a lot of researches is needed to integrate the fields of green tribology. Some ideas can
be borrowed from the related fields of green chemistry and green engineering, for example, the
development of quantitative parameters for assessing the impact of tribological technologies on
the environment. It is also important to develop quantitative measures and metrics that would
allow us to compare which tribological material, technology, or application is “greener,” i.e.,
produces lower carbon footprint, less waste from worn-out materials, and less chemical and heat
pollution to the environment.

Green tribology should be integrated into world science and contribute to solving global
problems such as resource depletion, environmental pollution and climate change. The
application of principles of green tribology by itself, of course, will not solve world problems,
and only major scientific achievements can become the key to their solution.

In the face of a large number of tribological problems requiring an early solution, which related
to the environmental pollution, crisis of energy and resources on global scale, green tribology
should be extended in the following directions [2].

 Large-scale deployment of existing knowledge, methods, and technologies of green

tribology;

 Research and development of novel green tribological technologies;

 Research and development of tribo-techniques to support diversification and

hybridization of renewable and clean energy;

 Making the traditional tribo-materials and lubricating materials “green” in the course of a
lifecycle, namely, realizing cleaner production or eco-design of the these materials;

 Building up the theory and methodology of green tribology.

Consequently, tribologists should devote all their efforts to the investigation, application and
development of green tribology, thereby making a valuable contribution to the existence and
development of humanity.

A DVERTISEMENT

4. “Zero-wear” effect: selective transfer

It seems expedient, at least briefly, to consider how the achievements that were obtained in the
study of self-organizing tribo-systems, and in particular, the “zero-wear” (effect of
wearlessness/effect of selective transfer—ST), play a role in the circle of tasks which green
tribology is designed to solve.

The effect of ST in friction was registered as opening in 1966, with a priority in 1956. The
authors of this discovery – D.N. Garkunov and I.V. Kragelsky – stated that the essence of the
observed phenomenon as follows: “…that in the friction of couple copper alloys-steel under
boundary lubrication, eliminating the oxidation of copper, there is a phenomenon of ST of a solid
solution of copper from copper-alloy to steel and its transfer backwards from steel to copper
alloy, with a reduction of the friction coefficient as liquid lubrication and leads to a significant
reduction in wear of the friction pair…” [4].
In the closing years of the XX century the “zero-wear” effect is defined as one of the examples
of self-organization in frictional interaction in tribological systems [41, 42], and since then, a
synergistic approach at his description has become essential.
Classical tribo-system for realizing of ST is a system of “copper alloy (bronze or brass) –
aqueous or alcoholic solution of glycerol – steel”. The evolution of the tribological properties of
this system visually demonstrated the self-organization in friction in ST mode, which is
expressed in the ultra-low frequency vibrations of the friction coefficient and of the size of the
rubbing bodies (Figure 6 [42]).

Figure 6.

The evolution of the tribological properties (1 – friction moment, 2 – the linear wear) in tribo-
system brass-glycerol-steel. A (a, b) – running-in; c, d – transition mode; and e – the ST mode
[42].

Self-organization in the ST mode during friction is the consequence of the complex tribo-
chemical reactions and physico-chemical processes occurred in the area of frictional contact,
which lead to the manifestation of unique tribological characteristics: super-antifrictional
(friction coefficient ~ 10−3) and without wear (intensity wear ~10 −15). This condition of tribo-
system was provided by a protective nanocrystalline servovite film made of soft metal with
unusual combination of mechanical properties [43]. According to the results of nanoindentation,
such a film has “super-hardness” at compression and “super-fluidity” at shear [44].
Within the framework of the I.V. Kragelsky’s molecular-mechanical theory, the providing
extremely low friction coefficients and practical absence of wear during friction of solids is
possible either at spontaneous generation of wear auto-compensation systems or in the case of
friction of perfectly smooth two-dimensional crystals, in which show up only molecular
component of the friction force that occurs, such as, during friction of graphene [45].
In the engineering practice, the auto-compensation systems of wear during friction in the ST
regime, usually are formed by selecting (a) the materials of tribo-coupling, (b) a composition of
lubricants, and (c) a construction of the friction units. As a result of successful material science
and engineering solutions, tribosystems are capable of self-organization, in which the process of
frictional interaction moved to the nanocrystalline quasi-liquid [3], and thus provides the friction
coefficient, which is characterized for hydrodynamic friction, forming nanoclusters with almost
perfect crystals, that leads to increases in load capacity and wear resistance of the friction
surfaces.
In practice, “zero-wear” functioning of friction is achieved most often by application of metal-
plating lubricants in the real friction units: oils, plastic lubricant, self-lubricating materials and
coatings [3].

The mechanism of “zero-wear” effect during friction does not follow from the existing
theoretical conclusions about the nature of the frictional interaction. Therefore, none of the
attempts to propose developed in detail and experimentally substantiated scientific approach to
explaining the “zero-wear” effect is currently generally recognized, although works aimed at
clarifying the causes of friction without wear have been underway for more than half a century,
during which reliable experimental facts have been accumulated and consistent approaches have
been proposed that allowed to qualitatively explain the evolution of the tribo-technical
characteristics of friction pairs during realization of the ST.

Currently, it has been reliably established that the composition, thickness and properties of
servovite film during frictional interaction continuously change so that the extrapolated to the
infinity friction surface is a pure copper (Figure 7), whose stability during friction is provided by
the absorption of surfactants from the lubricating medium [42, 46].
Figure 7.

AFM (3D-visualization) of the surface of the servovite transfer film (brass on steel in glycerol)
[42].

Detailed studies on tribochemical reactions, as well as the evolution of the chemical composition
of the servovite film on friction surfaces in the “zero-wear” regime, made it possible to
characterize in detail the products arising during friction and to establish their role in the
mechanisms of formation of boundary layers during self-organization of not only the classical
tribosystem “copper-glycerin-steel”, but also a number of more effective tribosystems using
other lubricants, such as aqueous solutions of polyhydric alcohols, solutions of sucrose, glucose,
galactose and other carbohydrates [3].

String of sequential and parallel chemical reactions: tribo-oxidation, tribo-coordination, tribo-

restoration, tribo-reducing decay of coordination compounds, tribo-polymerization, tribo-
clusterization and others, etc., accompanying, and/or generating vibrational tribo-chemical
reaction, vibrational electrical and electrochemical effects, vibration of the size of rubbing bodies
and tribological characteristics of friction pairs - that’s the one, is far from complete.

In the most general case, the evolution of the open tribo-system “copper alloy-glycerin-steel”,
classical for the realization of the “zero-wear” effect, from the thermodynamically equilibrium
state of rest under constant external initial conditions (P, V, T) to the friction regime without
wear always starts with high (more than 0.1) values of the friction coefficient and large running-
in wear, which leads to an increase in the energy intensity of the frictional contact zone and
triggers complex physicochemical transformations in the lubricating medium and on the
contacting surfaces of copper alloy and steel. At the same time, in the initial period of time, the
friction of the copper alloy against steel in glycerin does not differ in nature from the boundary
friction, which manifests itself both in the tribo-technical, electrical and electrochemical contact
characteristics. The products of wear accumulating at this time in glycerin have a very wide
particle size distribution from 10−7 to 10−3 m and are almost exclusively particles softer from
contact bodies of copper alloy. Wear, repeatedly increasing surfaces of copper alloy in the tribo-
system, leads to the predominant role of topochemical and tribo-chemical effects, both in the
lubricant composition and on the friction surfaces, which reflect in the tribo- and topochemical
oxidation of glycerin with the accumulation of a wide range of oxygen-containing surfactants
(aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, ethers and esters, as well as oligomeric and polymeric
products of their further transformations). Parallel to this, the formation of complex compounds
(tribo-coordination) occurs both on the surface of wear particles and on the friction surfaces, and
the soluble coordination metal compounds accumulate in the solution [3, 47, 48, 49].

Leading of tribo-chemical mechanisms on electrochemical reasons on the friction surface and on

the surface of wear of particles is oxidation of copper Cu 0 - 2e = Cu +2 (in the case of bronze) or
zinc Zn 0 -2e = Zn +2 (in the case of brass) in result of its selective dissolution. Other metals that
are part of the friction alloys such as Fe, Sn, Pb, etc., are also subjected to tribo-oxidation with
the formation of metal-containing products, so that in the lubricating medium and on the
frictional surface simultaneously there is a wide gamma of products, in which the explicitly
pronounced tendency in the initial period is the accumulation of oxidized forms of different
metals and oxidation products of the lubricant. An important event at this stage of evolution is
the accumulation in the lubricating medium and reducing the size of the metallic wear particles
with a simultaneous change in their composition due to above reasons. This leads ultimately to
the accumulation of metal-containing products upto critical concentrations and thus, to the
change of lubricant composition in becoming a metal-plating lubricant. There is a radical change
of physico-chemical, electrochemical and tribological situation on the friction surfaces and in the
zone of frictional contact. Tribo-system in the course of long enough evolution (in the laboratory
it is about 103 m of sliding distance) reaches the bifurcation point with transition either to “zero-
wear” friction regime or to the regime of the catastrophic wear.

In the transition and functioning of the tribo-system under ST, both contacting surfaces in
friction as copper alloy and steel have the same composition and structure. This is another
paradox of ST and an unusual combination of materials of the rubbing surfaces. It has been
observed that during friction of the same materials (usually in the friction units dissimilar metals
and alloys are combined) record-breaking parameters of frictional interaction can be achieved,
wherein the self-organization of frictional systems was achieved by the special structure of
surface layers.

In the transition from boundary friction to “zero-wear” friction, due to the non-equilibrium
character of the processes occurring in the tribo-system (since the system is far enough from the
position of thermodynamic equilibrium), and their description by systems of nonlinear
differential equations, oscillatory mechanisms begin to appear, which associated with both tribo-
chemical transformations in the contact zone, for example, with fluctuations in the concentration
of copper-containing products in the lubricant, and with the electrical, electrochemical and
tribological characteristics of the contact (Figure 8) [50]. Observing this type of oscillations,
which always accompany friction in the “zero-wear” regime, prove the manifestation of the self-
organization in friction, as well as the transition and functioning of the tribological system in one
of the stationary states.
Figure 8.

Fluctuations in the transient regime of “boundary friction – ST” in the friction pair “AISI 1045
Steel–AISI 1045 Steel” in the lubricant of copper nanocluster in glycerol. 1 – load; 2 – friction
coefficient; 3 – electrical resistance of contact [50].

The transient regime from boundary to “zero-wear” friction lasts significantly less than the
boundary friction regime, but at this time there are main events that lead to the unique
tribological characteristics of tribo-system. It is in this transition that the ordering process occurs,
which associated with the formation of a servovite film on the friction surface. The servovite
film is formed under nonequilibrium, non-isothermal and topographically unequal conditions,
which leads to inevitable differences in its composition and properties in different places of
frictional contact. Nevertheless, formation of the film is always due to mutually complementary
processes of tribo- and electrochemical reduction of coordination compounds of soft metals on
the friction surface, clustering their reduced forms, and optimization depending on the friction
regimes (P, V, T), sizes (in the nanoscale) and the shape (triaxial ellipsoid) of the clusters in two
ways “top-down” and “bottom-up” followed by the direct deposition of metal nanoclusters on
the contact surfaces due to tribo-electrochemical effects. The formation of servovite film begins
on the individual most active sections of the steel surface, which leads to reducing the friction
coefficient and a decrease in the energy density the friction unit. Finally, it is accompanied by a
decrease in wear and a transfer of the film formation process to less activated areas on the
frictional contact surfaces.

Any system thermodynamically approaches to one of many possible stationary states, the choice
of which is caused solely by the initial conditions. It should be noted that the trajectory of the
tribo-system during evolution into the “zero-wear” regime is always strictly individual and can
never be reproduced in detail. If the tribo-system self-organizes, which in the thermodynamic
description is characterized by an increase in entropy and ordering, then its tribological and
physicochemical characteristics in a stationary state become almost unchanged (Figure 9) [50].

Figure 9.

Stationary regime in the realization of ST in friction pair “AISI 1045 Steel–AISI 1045 Steel”
with lubricant of copper nanocluster in glycerol. 1 – load, 2 – friction coefficient, 3 – electrical
resistance of contact [50].

This is due to the fact that a servovite film, formed from individual atoms and their small
clusters, has a nanocrystalline structure and, on the one hand, is super-strong in compression,
since its nanoparticles are fragments of almost ideal crystals, and on the other hand, the film is
quasi-liquid and superplastic under tension and shear due to much weaker interactions between
nanoparticles than between atoms in the metal crystal lattice [43].

In this regime, the system can function until continuously accumulating external disturbances or
changing external conditions transfer it to a new stationary state, which may be characterized by
other and not necessarily higher tribo-technical characteristics, which makes the practical
implementation of “zero-wear” in real machines and mechanisms very complex and not always
justified event.

At the same time, even with a partial realization of “zero-wear” friction, the effects can be
impressive, since when functioning under self-organization conditions and with a slight change
in external conditions, the transition to a nearby stationary state is accompanied, as a rule, by a
slight change in the tribo-technical properties of the system.

Thus, the application of “zero-wear” effect in engineering practice opens a real opportunity for
the design of friction units with significantly increased durability and ultra-high efficiency in
terms of friction losses in moving machine interfaces. The “zero-wear” effect in the friction fully
fits into the presentation and concepts of green tribology and should be considered as the real
embodiment in the theory and practice of modern engineering.
Conclusion
Green tribology is a novel area of science and technology. It is related to
other areas of tribology as well as other “green” disciplines, namely, green
engineering and green chemistry. In this chapter the main scientific and
technological aspects of green tribology such as the concept, role and goal,
principles, focus areas, challenges, “zero-wear” effect were considered in
details.

The concept, role and goal of green tribology were clarified. Green tribology
can be defined as an interdisciplinary field attributed to the broad induction
of various concepts such as energy, materials science, green lubrication, and
environmental science. The goal and essence of green tribology is to save
material resources, improve energy efficiency, decrease emissions, shock
absorption, investigate and apply novel natural bio- and eco-lubricants as
well as to reduce the harmful effects of technical systems on the environment,
and consequently, improve the quality of human life.

The twelve principles and three areas of green tribology were analyzed.
Observation of these principles can greatly reduce the environmental impact
of tribological processes, assist economic development and, consequently,
improve the quality of life. The integration of these areas remains the major
challenge of green tribology and defines the future directions of research in
this field.

Within the framework of this work, one of the most important tribological
effects, which is exclusively the basis for green tribology - the “zero-wear”
effect in friction (selective transfer effect) was discussed.

As a result, this work allows us to conclude that green tribology is an

environmentally friendly and energy-saving concept and, moreover, there are
many opportunities for its inclusion in a sustainable society on a global scale.
Furthermore, there is a need for tribologists to collaborate towards the
development and application of Green tribology.
Green tribology is a branch of tribology that deals with improving technology with the challenge
of minimizing negative environmental and biological impact. Green tribology aims to achieve
the objectives of tribology along with other objectives such as emission reductions, resource and
energy conservations, and material efficiency. Balancing the technological developments that
can be made with their environmental and biological impacts can serve as a challenge, but it is
rewarding as the future of the planet and society can depend on applying green tribology to
technological designs. This article further examines the relationship between energy use and
human development, the areas and principles of green tribology and how they can be applied to
solve sustainability issues in technological advancements.

Principles of Green Tribology Building on the basic structure of the three main areas of green
tribology, twelve principles have been proposed [2]. These twelve principles include
minimization of heat and energy dissipation, minimization of wear, reducing or eliminating
lubrication, increasing the use of natural or biodegradable lubrication, following green chemistry
and engineering principles, employing biomimetic approaches, using surface texturing,
improving the design of surfaces and coatings to minimize wear, considering the environmental
impact of surface coating and texturing, developing sustainable energy applications, and
monitoring tribological systems to ensure that they are not producing harmful substances [2].
These principles can be applied to the development of new technologies and infrastructures that
are sustainable and minimize the consumption of fossil fuels.