Virtual Memory

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 Virtual memory

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Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from
physical memory
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Virtual memory is a technique that allows the execution of
processes that are not completely in memory.
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Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution
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Logical address space can therefore be much larger than
physical address space
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Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes
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Allows for more efficient process creation
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More programs running concurrently
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Less I/O needed to load or swap processes

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 Virtual memory (Cntd..)

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Virtual address space – logical view of how process
is stored in memory
- Usually start at address 0, contiguous addresses until end of space
- Meanwhile, physical memory organized in page frames
- MMU must map logical to physical

Virtual memory can be implemented via:

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- Demand paging
- Demand segmentation

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 Virtual memory (Cntd..)

Virtual address space.

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 Virtual memory (Cntd..)

Virtual address space.

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 Virtual memory (Cntd..)

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Virtual address space – logical view of how process
is stored in memory
- Usually start at address 0, contiguous addresses until end of space
- Meanwhile, physical memory organized in page frames
- MMU must map logical to physical

Virtual memory can be implemented via:

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- Demand paging
- Demand segmentation

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 Demand Paging
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Could bring entire process into memory at load time
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Or bring a page into memory only when it is needed
- Less I/O needed, no unnecessary I/O
- Less memory needed
- Faster response
- More users
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Similar to paging system with swapping (diagram on right)
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Page is needed  reference to it
- invalid reference  abort
- not-in-memory  bring to memory
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Lazy swapper – never swaps a page into memory unless page will be needed
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A swapper manipulates entire processes, whereas a pager is concerned with the
individual pages of a process.
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use “pager,” rather than “swapper,” in connection with demand paging

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 Demand Paging (Cntd..)

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 Demand Paging (Cntd..)
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With swapping, pager guesses which pages will be used before swapping out
again
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Instead, pager brings in only those pages into memory
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How to determine that set of pages?
- Need new MMU functionality to implement demand paging
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If pages needed are already memory resident
- No difference from non demand-paging
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If page needed and not memory resident
Need to detect and load the page into memory from storage
- Without changing program behavior
- Without programmer needing to change code

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 Demand Paging (Cntd..)
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With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is associated
(v  in-memory – memory resident, i  not-in-memory)
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Initially valid–invalid bit is set to i on all entries
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Example of a page table snapshot:

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During MMU address translation, if valid–invalid bit in page table entry is i 
page fault

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 Demand Paging (Cntd..)

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 Page Fault
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If there is a reference to a page, first reference to that page will trap to
operating system:
page fault
1. Operating system looks at the internal table to decide:
 Invalid reference  abort
 Just not in memory

2. Find free frame

3. Swap page into frame via scheduled disk operation
4. Reset tables to indicate page now in memory
Set validation bit = v
5. Restart the instruction that caused the page fault

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 Page Fault (Cntd..)

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 Aspects of Demand Paging
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Extreme case – start process with no pages in memory
- OS sets instruction pointer to first instruction of process, non-memory-
resident -> page fault
- And for every other process pages on first access
- Pure demand paging
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Actually, a given instruction could access multiple pages -> multiple page
faults
- Consider fetch and decode of instruction which adds 2 numbers from
memory and stores result back to memory
- Pain decreased because of locality of reference
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Hardware support needed for demand paging
- Page table with valid / invalid bit
- Secondary memory (swap device with swap space)
- Instruction restart

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 Performance of Demand Paging
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Stages in Demand Paging (worse case)
1. Trap to the operating system
2. Save the user registers and process state
3. Determine that the interrupt was a page fault
4. Check that the page reference was legal and determine the location of the page on the disk
5. Issue a read from the disk to a free frame:
1. Wait in a queue for this device until the read request is serviced
2. Wait for the device seek and/or latency time
3. Begin the transfer of the page to a free frame
6. While waiting, allocate the CPU to some other user
7. Receive an interrupt from the disk I/O subsystem (I/O completed)
8. Save the registers and process state for the other user
9. Determine that the interrupt was from the disk
10. Correct the page table and other tables to show page is now in memory
11. Wait for the CPU to be allocated to this process again
12. Restore the user registers, process state, and new page table, and then resume the interrupted
instruction

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 Performance of Demand Paging (Cont.)
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Three major activities
- Service the interrupt – careful coding means just several hundred
instructions needed
- Read the page – lots of time
- Restart the process – again just a small amount of time
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Page Fault Rate 0  p  1
- if p = 0 no page faults
- if p = 1, every reference is a fault
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Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 – p) x memory access +
p (page fault overhead + swap page out + swap page in )

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 Demand Paging Example

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Memory access time = 200 nanoseconds
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Average page-fault service time = 8 milliseconds
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EAT = (1 – p) x 200 + p (8 milliseconds)
= (1 – p x 200 + p x 8,000,000
= 200 + p x 7,999,800

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 Page Replacement
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Prevent over-allocation of memory by modifying page-fault service routine
to include page replacement
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Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page transfers – only modified
pages are written to disk
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Page replacement completes separation between logical memory and
physical memory – large virtual memory can be provided on a smaller
physical memory

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 Need For Page Replacement

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 Basic Page Replacement
1. Find the location of the desired page on disk

2. Find a free frame:

- If there is a free frame, use it
- If there is no free frame, use a page replacement algorithm to
select a victim frame
- Write victim frame to disk if dirty

3. Bring the desired page into the (newly) free frame; update the page
and frame tables

4. Continue the process by restarting the instruction that caused the trap

Note now potentially 2 page transfers for page fault – increasing EAT

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 Page Replacement

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 Page and Frame Replacement Algorithms
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Frame-allocation algorithm determines
- How many frames to give each process
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Page-replacement algorithm
- Which frames to replace
- Want lowest page-fault rate on both first access and re-access
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Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular string of memory
references (reference string) and computing the number of page faults on
that string
- String is just page numbers, not full addresses
- Repeated access to the same page does not cause a page fault
- Results depend on number of frames available

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 First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm

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A FIFO replacement algorithm associates with each page the time when
that page was brought into memory. When a page must be replaced, the
oldest page is chosen.
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Reference string:
- 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
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3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

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 FIFO Algorithm (Cntd..)

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Can vary by reference string: consider 1,2,3,4,1,2,5,1,2,3,4,5
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Adding more frames can cause more page faults!
- Belady’s Anomaly

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 Optimal Page Replacement Algorithm
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Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time
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It has the lowest page-fault rate of all algorithms and will never suffer from
Belady’s anomaly
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Reference string:
- 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
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3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)
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The optimal page-replacement algorithm is difficult to implement, because it
requires future knowledge of the reference string.

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 Optimal Page Replacement Algorithm
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Reference string:
- 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
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3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

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 Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm

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Use past knowledge rather than future
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Replace page that has not been used in the most amount of time
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Associate time of last use with each page
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Reference string:
- 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
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3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

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 Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm
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Reference string:
- 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
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3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

12 faults – better than FIFO but worse than OPT

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 Thrashing
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If a process does not have “enough” pages, the page-fault rate is very
high
- Page fault to get page
- Replace existing frame
- But quickly need replaced frame back
- This leads to:
* Low CPU utilization

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Thrashing  a process is busy swapping pages in and out
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A process is thrashing if it is spending more time paging than
executing.

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Impliment any one of page replacment
algorithm.
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Upload as pdf.
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Pdf contain program and output.
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5 cases of output should be there in pdf
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Submission on 04/11/2024

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