Complete 3 Module Hardened Concrete

Module III Concrete Technology
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
MODULE – III
SYALLABUS:
Hardened Concrete Factors influencing strength, W/C ratio, gel/space ratio, Maturity concept,
Testing of hardened concrete, Creep – facto rs affecting creep. Shrinkage of concrete –
plastic shrinking and drying shrinkage, Factors affecting shrinkage. Definition and significance of
durability. Internal and external factors influencing durability, Mechanisms- Sulphate attack –
chloride attack, carbonation, freezing and thawing. Corrosion, Durability requirements as per IS-
456, In situ testing of concrete- Penetration and pull out test, rebound hammer test, ultrasonic
pulse velocity, core extraction – Principal, applications and limitations.
1.1 Factors influencing strength

Concrete strength is affected by many factors, such as quality of raw materials, water/cement
ratio, coarse/fine aggregate ratio, age of concrete, compaction of concrete, temperature, relative
humidity and curing of concrete.
Quality of Raw Materials
Cement: Provided the cement conforms with the appropriate standard and it has been stored
correctly (i.e. in dry conditions), it should be suitable for use in concrete.
Aggregates: Quality of aggregates, its size, shape, texture, strength etc determines the strength of
concrete. The presence of salts (chlorides and sulphates), silt and clay also reduces the strength of
concrete.
Water: frequently the quality of the water is covered by a clause stating “..the water should be fit
for drinking..”. This criterion though is not absolute and reference should be made to respective
codes for testing of water construction purpose.
Water / Cement Ratio

The relation between water cement ratio and strength of concrete is shown in the
plot as shown below:
JNNCE,SHIMOGA Page 1
ANAND.B, Assistant Professor, Dept. of civil Engineering
The higher the water/cement ratio, the greater the initial spacing between the cement grains and
the greater the volume of residual voids not filled by hydration products.
There is one thing missing on the graph. For a given cement content, the workability of the
concrete is reduced if the water/cement ratio is reduced. A lower water cement ratio means less
water, or more cement and lower workability.
However if the workability becomes too low the concrete becomes difficult to compact and the
strength reduces. For a given set of materials and environment conditions, the strength at any age
depends only on the water-cement ratio, providing full compaction can be achieved.
Coarse / fine aggregate ratio

Following points should be noted for coarse/fine aggregate ratio:
o If the proportion of fines is increased in relation to the coarse aggregate, the
overall aggregate surface area will increase.
o If the surface area of the aggregate has increased, the water demand will also
increase.
o Assuming the water demand has increased, the water cement ratio will
increase.
o Since the water cement ratio has increased, the compressive strength will
decrease
Aggregate / Cement Ratio

Following points must be noted for aggregate cement ratio:
o If the volume remains the same and the proportion of cement in relation to that of sand is
increased the surface area of the solid will increase.
o If the surface area of the solids has increased, the water demand will stay the same for the
constant workability.
o Assuming an increase in cement content for no increase in water demand, the water
cement ratio will decrease.
o If the water cement ratio reduces, the strength of the concrete will increase.
The influence of cement content on workability and strength is an important one to remember
and can be summarized as follows:
1. For a given workability an increase in the proportion of cement in a mix has little effect
on the water demand and results in a reduction in the water/cement ratio.
2. The reduction in water/cement ratio leads to an increase in strength of concrete.
3. Therefore, for a given workability an increase in the cement content results in an increase
in strength of concrete.
Age of concrete
The degree of hydration is synonymous with the age of concrete provided the concrete has not
been allowed to dry out or the temperature is too low.
In theory, provided the concrete is not allowed to dry out, then it wil always be increasing albeit
at an ever reducing rate. For convenience and for most practical applications, it is generally
accepted that the majority of the strength has been achieved by 28 days.
Compaction of concrete
Any entrapped air resulting from inadequate compaction of the plastic concrete will lead to a
reduction in strength. If there was 10% trapped air in the concrete, the strength will fall down in
the range of 30 to 40%.
Temperature
The rate of hydration reaction is temperature dependent. If the temperature increases the reaction
also increases. This means that the concrete kept at higher temperature will gain strength more
quickly than a similar concrete kept at a lower temperature.
However, the final strength of the concrete kept at the higher temperature will be lower. This is
because the physical form of the hardened cement paste is less well structured and more porous
when hydration proceeds at faster rate.
2.1 Water/Cement Ratio
Strength of concrete primarily depends upon the strength of cement paste. The strength of
cement paste depends upon the dilution of paste or in other words, the strength of paste increases
with cement content and decreases with air and water content. In 1918 Abrams presented his
classic law in the form:
where x =water/cement ratio by volume and for 28 days results the constants A and B are 14,000
lbs/sq. in. and 7 respectively.7.1
Abrams water/cement ratio law states that the strength of concrete is only dependent upon
water/cement ratio provided the mix is workable. In the past many theories have been
propounded by many research workers. Some of them held valid for some time and then
underwent some changes while others did not stand the test of time and hence slowly
disappeared. But Abrams‟ water/cement ratio law stood the test of time and is held valid even
today as a fundamental truth in concrete-making practices. No doubt some modifications have
been suggested but the truth of the statement could not be challenged. Strictly speaking, it was
Feret who formulated in as early as 1897, a general rule defining the strength of the concrete
paste and concrete in terms of volume fractions of the constituents by the equation:
where S = Strength of concrete

c, e and a = volume of cement, water and air respectively and
K = a constant.
In this expression the volume of air is also included because it is not only the water/cement ratio
but also the degree of compaction, which indirectly means the volume of air filled voids in the
concrete is taken into account in estimating the strength of concrete. The relation between the
water/cement ratio and strength of concrete is shown in Fig. 7.1. It can be seen that lower
water/cement ratio could be used when the concrete is vibrated to achieve higher strength,
whereas comparatively higher water/cement ratio is required when concrete is handcompacted.
In both cases when the water/cement ratio is below the practical limit the strength of the concrete
falls rapidly due to introduction of air voids. The graph showing the relationship between the
strength and water/cement ratio is approximately hyperbolic in shape. Sometimes it is difficult to
interpolate the intermediate value. From geometry it can be deduced that if the graphs is drawn
between the strength and the cement/water ratio an approximately linear relationship will be
obtained. This linear relationship is more convenient to use than water/cement ratio curve for
interpolation.
3.1 Gel/Space Ratio

Many research workers commented on the validity of water/cement ratio law as propounded by
Duff Abrams. They have forwarded a few of the limitations of the water/ cement ratio law and
argued that Abrams water/cement ratio law can only be called a rule and not a law because
Abrams‟ statement does not include many qualifications necessary for its validity to call it a law.
Some of the limitations are that the strength at any water/cement ratio depends on the degree of
hydration of cement and its chemical and physical properties, the temperature at which the
hydration takes place, the air content in case of air entrained concrete, the change in the effective
water/cement ratio and the formation of fissures and cracks due to bleeding or shrinkage.
Instead of relating the strength to water/cement ratio, the strength can be more correctly related
to the solid products of hydration of cement to the space available for formation of this product.
Powers and Brownyard have established the relationship between the strength and gel/space
ratio.
This ratio is defined as the ratio of the volume of the hydrated cement paste to the sum of
volumes of the hydrated cement and of the capillary pores.
Power‟s experiment showed that the strength of concrete bears a specific relationship with the
gel/space ratio. He found the relationship to be 240 x3, where x is the gel/space ratio and 240
represents the intrinsic strength of the gel in MPa for the type of cement and specimen used.7.3
The strength calculated by Power‟s expression holds good for an ideal case. Fig. 7.3 shows the
relationship between\ strength and gel/space ratio. It is pointed out that the relationship between
the strength and water/cement ratio will hold good primarily for 28 days strength for fully
compacted concrete, whereas, the relationship between the strength and gel/space ratio is
independent of age. Gel/space ratio can be calculated at any age and for any fraction of hydration
of cement.
The following example show how to calculate the gel/space ratio.
4.1 Maturity Concept of Concrete
While dealing with curing and strength development, we have so far considered only the time
aspect. It has been pointed out earlier that it is not only the time but also thetemperature during
the early period of hydration that influence the rate of gain of strength of concrete. Since the
strength development of concrete depends on both time and temperature it can be said that
strength is a function of summation of product of time and temperature. This summation is called
maturity of concrete.
Maturity = Σ (time x temperature)

The temperature is reckoned from an origin lying between –12 and –10°C. It was experimentally
found that the hydration of concrete continues to take place upto about –11°C. Therefore, –11°C
is taken as a datum line for computing maturity. Maturity is measured in degree centigrade hours
(°C hrs) or degree centigrade days (°C days).
Fig. 7.6. shows that the strength plotted against the logarithm of maturity gives a
straight line.
A sample of concrete cured at 18°C for 28 days is taken as fully matured concrete.
Its maturity would be equal to

28 x 24 x [18 – (–11)] = 19488°C h.
However, in standard calculations the maturity of fully cured concrete is taken as 19,800°Ch..
(The discrepancy is because of the origin or the datum is not exactly being –11 C as used in
calculation). If the period is broken into smaller intervals and if the corresponding temperature is
recorded for each interval of time, the summation of the product of time and temperature will
give an accurate picture of the maturity of concrete. In the absence of such detailed temperature
history with respect to the time interval, the maturity figure can be arrived at by multiplying
duration in hours by the average temperature at which the concrete is cured. Of course, the
maturity calculateed as above will be less accurate.
Maturity concept is useful for estimating the strength of concrete at any other maturity as a
percentage of strength of concrete of known maturity. In other words, if we know the strength of
concrete at full maturity (19,800°Ch), we can calculate the percentage strength of identical
concrete at any other maturity by using the following equation given by Plowman. Strength at
any maturity as a percentage of strength at maturity of
The values of A and B are plotted against the cube strength at the maturity of 19,800° Ch. A
straight line relationship will be obtained indicating that they are directly proportional to the
strength. Plowman divided the strength into 4 zones as shown in Table 7.5 and has assigned the
values of A and B for each zone. It is to be noted that the maturity equation holds good for the
initial temperature of concrete less than about 38°C. Fig. 7.7 gives the value of constant A and B
when strength and temperature are expressed in lbs/sq inch and °F respectively.
The following example illustrate the theory:
6.1 CREEP OF CONCRETE:
Creep can be defined as “the time-dependent” part of the strain resulting from stress. Creep can
be defined as the elastic and long-term deformation of concrete under a continuous load.
Generally, a long term pressure changes the shape of concrete structure and the deformation
occurs along the direction of the applied load. When the continuous load is removed, the strain is
decreased immediately. The amount of the decreased strain is equal to the elastic strain at the
given age. This quick recovery is then followed by a continuous decrease in strain, known as
creep recovery that is a part of total creep strain suffered by the concrete.
Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained load. Basically, long
term pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation usually occurs in
the direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete column getting more compressed, or a
beam bending. Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break apart. When a load is
applied to concrete, it experiences an instantaneous elastic strain which develops into creep strain
if the load is sustained
Mechanism: Cement paste essentially consists of unhydrated cement grains surrounded by the
product of hydration mostly in the form of gel. These gels are interpenetrated by gel pores and
interspersed by capillary cavities. The process of hydration generates more and more of gel and
subsequently there will be reduction of unhydrated cement and capillary cavities. In young
concrete, gel pores are filled with gel water and capillary cavities may or may not be filled with
water. The movement of water held in gel and paste structure takes place under the influence of
internal and external water vapour pressure. The movement of water may also take place due to
the sustained load on concrete.
The formation of gel and the state of existence of water are the significant factors on the
deformative characteristics of concrete. The gel provides the rigidity both by the formation of
chemical bonds and by the surface force of attraction while the water can be existing in three
categories namely combined water, gel water and capillary water.
It is interesting to find how such a conglomeration of very fine colloidal particles with enclosed
water-filled viods behave under the action of external forces. One of the explanations given to
the mechanics of creeps is based on the theory that the colloidal particles slide against each other
to re-adjust their position displacing the water held in gel pores and capillary cavities. This flow
of gel and the consequent displacement of water is responsible for complex deformation
behavior and creep of concrete.
Creep takes place only under stress. Under sustained stress, with time, the gel, the
adsorbed water layer, the water held in the gel pores and capillary pores yields, flows and
readjust themselves, which behavior is termed as creep in concrete.
Microscopic Rheological Approach
At the microscopic level, the structure of cement of gel can be represented as an anisotropic
crystal clusters randomly oriented in a solid matrix (Figure 8.8). The application of a
macroscopic shear stress to the anisotropic system results in an irrecoverable volumetric
contraction of the spaces in some of the clusters [Figure 8.8 (a)] and a separation in other clusters
[Figure 8.8 (b)]. Only. a fraction of the elements is subjected to pure shear [Figure 8.8 (c)]. On
removal of the load there is a visco-elastic recovery, but due to some deviatory stress component,
certain local irrecoverable volume changes will remain. Figure 8.9 shows the further
submicroscopic models. They represented metastable crystalline gel consisting of two sheet like
crystals separated by a layer of water. Three basically different mechanisms of deformation are
possible. They are compressive stresses normal to contact layer [Figure 8.9 (a)] tensile stresses
normal to the contact layer [Figure 8.9 (b)] sheer stresses parallel to the contant layer [Figure 8.9
(c)]
In mechanism (a), the liquid is compressed and squeezed out laterally. This is accompanied by a
reduction of the intercrystalline space. The rate of liquid movement is slow and will decrease
with narrowing of space which tends towards a limit equal to a monomolecular compressed
water layer (about 3 Å). This squeezing away of liquid against strong frictional forces is the
principal cause of the time dependent, irrecoverable changes in the cement gel.
In mechanism (b), visco-elastic elongation may be expected, at a faster rate than in the case of
compression. This elongation is restrained, however, by the solid matrix and delayed, although
complete recovery may be expected long after unloading.
In mechanism (c), the shear stress results in the water layers.8.3 Under the complex systems of
applied loading, below the elastic limit of the material, various combinations of these basic
mechanisms of deformation may be expected. On the basis of the available experimental
evidence, it may be assumed that the long term deformation mechanism in cement gel is that
involving narrowing of the intercrystalline spaces. This is reflected in the slow and decreasing
rate of time-dependent of deformation, as well as in the irrecoverable component of the
deformations which increase with loading time.
The time dependent deformation behavior of loaded and unloaded hardened cement
paste shows a distinct similarity between creep (and its recovery) and shrinkage (and swelling).
All these processes are governed by movement or migration of the various types of water held.
Factors Affecting Creep
1. Aggregate
2. Mix Proportions
3. Age of concrete
The magnitude of creep strain is one to three times the value of the instantaneous elastic strain, it
is proportional to cement-paste content and, thus, inversely proportional to aggregate volumetric
content. The magnitude of creep is dependent upon the magnitude of the applied stress, the age
and strength of the concrete, properties of aggregates and cementations materials, amount of
cement paste, size and shape of concrete specimen, volume to surface ratio, amount of steel
reinforcement, curing conditions, and environmental conditions
1. Influence of Aggregate
Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste which is responsible for the creep.
However, the aggregate influences the creep of concrete through a restraining effect on the
magnitude of creep. The paste which is creeping under load is restrained by aggregate which do
not creep. The stronger the aggregate the more is the restraining effect and hence the less is the
magnitude of creep. An increase from 65 to 75 % of volumetric content of the aggregate will
decrease the creep by 10 %.
The modulus of elasticity of aggregate is one of the important factors influencing creep. It can be
easily imagined that the higher the modulus of elasticity the less is the creep. Light weight
aggregate shows substantially higher creep than normal weight aggregate.
2. Influence of Mix Proportions:

The amount of paste content and its quality is one of the most important factors influencing
creep. A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep. Therefore, it can be said that creep
increases with increase in water/cement ratio. In other words, it can also be said that creep is
inversely proportional to the strength of concrete. Broadly speaking, all other factors which are
affecting the water/cement ratio are also affecting the creep.
3. Influence of Age:
Age at which a concrete member is loaded will have a predominant effect on the magnitude of
creep. This can be easily understood from the fact that the quality of gel improves with time.
Such gel creeps less, whereas a young gel under load being not so stronger creeps more. What is
said above is not a very accurate statement because of the fact that the moisture content of the
concrete being different at different age also influences the magnitude of creep
Effects of Creep on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

 In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time and may be a
critical consideration in design.
 In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can load to buckling.
 In case of statically indeterminate structures and column and beam junctions creep may
relieve the stress concentration induced by shrinkage, temperatures changes or movement
of support. Creep property of concrete will be useful in all concrete structures to reduce
the internal stresses due to non-uniform load or restrained shrinkage.
 In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential temperature
conditions at the interior and surface, creep is harmful and by itself may be a cause of
cracking in the interior of dams. Therefore, all precautions and steps must be taken to see
that increase in temperature does not take place in the interior of mass concrete structure.
 Loss of prestress due to creep of concrete in prestressed concrete structure.
 Because of rapid construction techniques, concrete members will experience loads that
can be as large as the design loads at very early age; these can cause deflections due to
cracking and early age low elastic modulus. So, creep has a significant effect on both the
structural integrity and the economic impact that it will produce if predicted wrong.
7.1 Shrinkage
Concrete is subjected to changes in volume either autogenous or induced. Volume change is one
of the most detrimental properties of concrete, which affects the long-term strength and
durability. To the practical engineer, the aspect of volume change in concrete is important from
the point of view that it causes unsightly cracks in concrete and called concrete shrinkage.
Concrete Shrinkage is the change in length per unit length and is, therefore, a dimensional
number expressed as percent. Shrinkage is time-dependent and its value includes plastic
shrinkage, autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage, and carbonation shrinkage usually quantified
in terms of micro strain which is equal to 1x10^-6 in/in or 1x10^-6 m/m.
We have discussed elsewhere the effect of volume change due to thermal properties of aggregate
and concrete, due to alkali/aggregate reaction, due to sulphate action etc. Presently we shall
discuss the volume change on account of inherent properties of concrete “shrinkage”. One of the
most objectionable defects in concrete is the presence of cracks, particularly in floors and
pavements. One of the important factors that contribute to the cracks in floors and pavements is
that due to shrinkage. It is difficult to make concrete which does not shrink and crack. It is only a
question of magnitude. Now the question is how to reduce the shrinkage and shrinkage cracks in
concrete structures. The term shrinkage is loosely used to describe the various aspects of volume
changes in concrete due to loss of moisture at different stages due to different reasons.
Types of Shrinkage in Concrete
(a) Plastic Shrinkage in concrete

(b) Drying Shrinkage in concrete
(c) Autogeneous Shrinkage in concrete
(d) Carbonation Shrinkage in concrete
a. Plastic Shrinkage
Plastic shrinkage is contraction in volume due to water movement from the concrete while still in
the plastic state, or before it sets. This movement of water can be during the hydration process or
from the environmental conditions leading to evaporation of water that resides on the surface on
the wet concrete. So, the more the concrete bleeds, the greater the plastic shrinkage should be.
Plastic shrinkage is proportional to cement content and, therefore, inversely proportional to the
w/c ratio.
Concrete shrinkage of this type manifests itself soon after the concrete is placed in the forms
while the concrete is still in the plastic state. Loss of water by evaporation from the surface of
concrete or by the absorption by aggregate or subgrade, is believed to be the reasons of plastic
shrinkage. The loss of water results in the reduction of volume. The aggregate particles or the
reinforcement comes in the way of subsidence due to which cracks may appear at the surface or
internally around the aggregate or reinforcement. In case of floors and pavements where the
surface area exposed to drying is large as compared to depth, when this large surface is exposed
to hot sun and drying wind, the surface of concrete dries very fast which results in plastic
shrinkage. Sometimes even if the concrete is not subjected to severe drying, but poorly made
with a high water/cement ratio, large quantity of water bleeds and accumulates at the surface.
When this water at the surface dries out, the surface concrete collapses causing cracks. Plastic
concrete is sometimes subjected to unintended vibration or yielding of formwork support which
again causes plastic shrinkage cracks as the concrete at this stage has not developed enough
strength. From the above it can be inferred that high water/cement ratio, badly proportioned
concrete, rapid drying, greater bleeding, unintended vibration etc., are some of the reasons for
plastic shrinkage. It can also be further added that richer concrete undergoes greater plastic
shrinkage.
Plastic shrinkage in concrete can be reduced mainly by preventing the rapid loss of water from
surface. This can be done by covering the surface with polyethylene sheeting immediately on
finishing operation; by fog spray that keeps the surface moist; or by working at night. Use of
small quantity of aluminium powder is also suggested to offset the effect of plastic shrinkage.
Similarly, expansive cement or shrinkage compensating cement also can be used for controlling
the shrinkage during the setting of concrete.
b. Drying Shrinkage
Just as the hydration of cement is an ever lasting process, the drying shrinkage is also an ever
lasting process when concrete is subjected to drying conditions. The drying shrinkage of concrete
is analogous to the mechanism of drying of timber specimen. The loss of free water contained in
hardened concrete, does not result in any appreciable dimension change. It is the loss of water
held in gel pores that causes the change in the volume. Under drying conditions, the gel water is
lost progressively over a long time, as long as the concrete is kept in drying conditions. Cement
paste shrinks more than mortar and mortar shrinks more than concrete. Concrete made with
smaller size aggregate shrinks more than concrete made with bigger size aggregate. The
magnitude of drying shrinkage is also a function of the fineness of gel. The finer the gel the more
is the shrinkage.
c. Autogeneous Shrinkage
Autogeneous shrinkage, also known as “basic shrinkage,” is the shrinkage due to chemical
reactions between cement with water, known as hydration, and do not include environmental
effects such as temperature and moisture changes. Its magnitude is usually ignored in concretes
with w/c more than 0.40.
In a conservative system i.e. where no moisture movement to or from the paste is permitted,
when temperature is constant some shrinkage may occur. The shrinkage of such a conservative
system is known as autogeneous shrinkage. Autogeneous shrinkage is of minor importance and is
not applicable in practice to many situations except that of mass of concrete in the interior of a
concrete dam.
d. Carbonation Shrinkage
Carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere reacts in the presence of water with hydrated cement.
Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] gets converted to calcium carbonate and also some other cement
compounds are decomposed. Such a complete decomposition of calcium compound in hydrated
cement is chemically possible even at the low pressure of carbon dioxide in normal atmosphere.
Carbonation penetrates beyond the exposed surface of concrete very slowly. The rate of
penetration of carbon dioxide depends also on the moisture content of the concrete and the
relative humidity of the ambient medium. Carbonation is accompanied by an increase in weight
of the concrete and by shrinkage.
Carbonation shrinkage is probably caused by the dissolution of crystals of calcium hydroxide and
deposition of calcium carbonate in its place. As the new product is less in volume than the
product replaced, shrinkage takes place. Carbonation of concrete also results in increased
strength and reduced permeability, possibly because water released by carbonation promotes the
process of hydration and also calcium carbonate reduces the voids within the cement paste. As
the magnitude of carbonation shrinkage is very small when compared to long term drying
shrinkage, this aspect is not of much significance
Factors Affecting Shrinkage of Concrete
1. Humidity (Drying Condition)

2. Water Cement Ratio
3. Hardness of Aggregates
4. Moisture Movement in Concrete
5. Type of Coarse Aggregates
6. Shape of Aggregates
Other factors that have an effect on the magnitude of shrinkage include mix proportions, material
properties, curing methods, environmental conditions, and geometry of the specimen. Water
content has been found to affect the magnitude and rate of drying shrinkage in concrete. Other
factors include elastic properties of the aggregate used in the concrete mix; in general, aggregate
with a high elastic modulus will produce low shrinkage concrete. Aggregates which contain clay
minerals will affect shrinkage behavior as well.
Humidity (Drying Condition)

One of the most important factors that affects concrete shrinkage is the drying condition or in
other words, the relative humidity of the atmosphere at which the concrete specimen is kept. If
the concrete is placed in 100 per cent relative humidity for any length of time, there will not be
any shrinkage; instead there will be a slight swelling. The typical relationship between shrinkage
and time for which concrete is stored at different relative humidity’s is shown in Figure.
Hardness of Aggregates
Harder aggregate with higher modulus of elasticity like quartz shrinks much less than softer
aggregates such as sandstone.
The graph shows that the magnitude of shrinkage increases with time and also with
the reduction of relative humidity. The rate of shrinkage decreases rapidly with
time. It is observed that 14 to 34 per cent of the 20 year shrinkage occurs in 2
weeks, 40 to 80 per cent of the 20 year shrinkage occurs in 3 months and 66 to 85
per cent of the 20 year shrinkage occurs in one year.
Water Cement Ratio

Another important factor which influences the magnitude of shrinkage is water/cement ratio of
the concrete. The richness of the concrete also has a significant influence on shrinkage.
Aggregate plays an important role in the shrinkage properties of concrete. The quantum of an
aggregate, its size, and its modulus of elasticity influence the magnitude of drying shrinkage.
Moisture Movement in Concrete

Concrete shrinks when allowed to dry in air at a lower relative humidity and it swells when kept
at 100 per cent relative humidity or when placed in water. Just as drying shrinkage is an ever
continuing process, swelling, when continuously placed in water is also an ever continuing
process. If a concrete sample subjected to drying condition, at some stage, is subjected to wetting
condition, it starts swelling. It is interesting to note that all the initial drying shrinkage is not
recovered even after prolonged storage in water which shows that the phenomenon of drying
shrinkage is not a fully reversible one. Just as the drying shrinkage is due to loss of adsorbed
water around gel particles, swelling is due to the adsorption of water by the cement gel. The
water molecules act against the cohesive force and tend to force the gel particles further apart as
a result of which swelling takes place. In addition, the ingress of water decreases the surface
tension of the gel. The property of swelling when placed in wet condition, and shrinking when
placed in drying condition is referred as moisture movement in concrete.
Type of Coarse Aggregates

Different aggregate type will have different properties and will therefore have different effects on
concrete shrinkage. In general, concretes made with high moduli of elasticity non- shrinking
aggregates will have low shrinkage.
Shape of Aggregates
The size and shape of coarse aggregate influence the loss of moisture and it has therefore an
indirect effect on the shrinkage of concrete. In general, the smaller the aggregate size, the more
surface area, more water is absorbed as a result and, therefore, more shrinkage. This means that
whenever low shrinkage is desired, largest aggregate size should be used
8.1 Durability of concrete:

Definition:
 The ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion while
maintaining its desired engineering properties.
 A durable concrete is one that performs satisfactorily in the working environment during its
anticipated exposure conditions during service (IS 456-2000)
 When exposed to environment durable concrete is likely to retain its original form, quality
and serviceability during its lifetime
It normally refers to the duration or life span of trouble-free performance. Different concretes
require different degrees of durability depending on the exposure environment and properties
desired. For example, concrete exposed to tidal seawater will have different requirements than
indoor concrete.
Concrete will remain durable if:

 The cement paste structure is dense and of low permeability
 Under extreme condition, it has entrained air to resist freeze-thaw cycle.
 It is made with graded aggregate that are strong and inert
 The ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities such as alkalis, Chlorides,
sulphates and silt.
1. Physical durability of concrete

2. Chemical durability of concrete
Physical Durability
Physical durability is against the following actions
1. Freezing and thawing action
2. Percolation / Permeability of water
3. Temperature stresses i.e. high heat of hydration
Chemical Durability
Chemical durability is against the following actions
1. Alkali Aggregate Reaction
2. Sulphate Attack
3. Chloride Ingress
4. Delay Ettringite Formation
5. Corrosion of reinforcement
Causes for the Lack of Durability in Concrete
1. External Causes:
1. Extreme Weathering Conditions

2. Extreme Temperature
3. Extreme Humidity
4. Abrasion
5. Electrolytic Action
6. Attack by a natural or industrial liquids or gases
2. Internal Causes
a) Physical
1. Volume change due to difference in thermal properties of aggregates and cement paste
2. Frost Action
b) Chemical
1. Alkali Aggregate Reactions
2. Corrosion of Steel
Significance of Durability:
• Loss of strength of concrete
• Concrete liable to be easily affected by deterrents
• Corrosion of rebar’s
• Loss of serviceability
• Unpleasant appearance
• Danger to persons and property
• Expensive repair costs
• Poor perception of concrete as a material
• Poor perception of agencies involved
• Reduction of service life
• External agencies like weathering, attack by natural or Industrial liquids, Gases, bacterial
Growth etc.
• Alkali- aggregate reaction.
• Ingression of moisture/air
 When designing a concrete mix or designing a concrete structure, the exposure condition at
which the concrete is supposed to withstand is to be assessed in the beginning with good
judgement. In case of foundations, the soil characteristics are also required to be
investigated.
 The environmental pollution is increasing day by day particularly in urban areas and
industrial atmospheres.
 It is reported that in industrially developed countries over 40 per cent of total resources of the
building industries are spent on repairs and maintenance.
 In India, the money that is spent on repair of buildings is also considerable. Every
government department and municipal bodies have their own “Repair Boards” to deal with
repairs of buildings. It is a sad state of affairs that we do not give enough attention to
durability aspects even when we carry out repairs
 Another point for consideration is that, presently, the use of concrete has been extended to
more hostile environments, having already used up all good, favorable sites.
 Even the good materials such as aggregate, sand are becoming short supply. No doubt that
the cement production is modernized, but sometimes the second grade raw materials such as
lime stones containing excess of chloride is being used for pressing economical
reasons.
Earlier specifications of Portland cement permitted a maximum chloride content of 0.05 per
cent.
 Recently, maximum permissible chloride content in cement has been increased to 0.1 per
cent. This high permissible chloride content in cement demands much stricter durability
considerations in other aspects of concrete making practices to keep the total chloride content
in concrete within the permissible limits. In other words, considerations for durability of
modern concrete constructions assume much more importance, than hitherto practiced.
Factors Affecting Durability of Concrete

Following are the factors affecting durability of concrete.
1. Cement Content
2. Aggregate Quality
3. Water Quality
4. Concrete Compaction
5. Curing Period
6. Permeability
7. Moisture
8. Temperature
9. Abrasion
10. Carbonation
11. Wetting and Drying Cycles
12. Freezing and Thawing
13. Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
14. Sulfate Attack
15. Organic Acids
1. Cement Content
o Quantity of cement used in concrete mix will also be a factor affecting durability of
concrete.
o If cement content used is lower than the required, then water cement ratio becomes
reduced and workability also reduced.
o Adding more water to this mix results in formation capillary voids which will make
concrete as permeable material.
o If excess cement content is used, problems like drying shrinkage, alkali-silica reaction
may occur which finally effects the durability of concrete.
2. Aggregate Quality
o Use of good quality aggregates in concrete mix will surely increase the durability of
hardened concrete.
o The shape of aggregate particles should be smooth and round. Flaky and elongated
aggregates effects the workability of fresh concrete.
o For better bond development between ingredients rough textured angular aggregates are
recommended but they require more cement content.
o Aggregate should be well graded to achieve dense concrete mix.
o Aggregates should be tested for its moisture content before using. Excess moisture in
aggregate may lead to highly workable mix.
3. Water Quality
o Quality of water used in concrete mixing also effects the durability of concrete. In
general, potable water is recommended for making concrete.
o pH of water used shall be in the range of 6 to 8.
o Water should be clean and free from oils, acids, alkalies, salts, sugar, organic materials
etc.
o Presence of these impurities will lead to corrosion of steel or deterioration of concrete by
different chemical reactions
4. Concrete Compaction
o While placing concrete, it is important to compact the placed concrete without
segregation.
o Improperly compacted concrete contain number of air voids in it which reduces the
concrete strength and durability.
5. Curing Period
o Proper curing in initial stages of concrete hardening result in good durability of concrete.
o Improper curing leads to formation of cracks due to plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage,
thermal effects etc. thereby durability decreases.
6. Permeability
o Concrete durability gets affected when there is a chance of penetrability of water into it.
o Permeability of water into concrete expand its volume and lead to formation of cracks
and finally disintegration of concrete occurs.
o Generally concrete contains small gel pores and capillary cavities. However, gel pores do
not allow penetration of water through them since they are of very small size.
o But, capillary cavities in concrete are responsible for permeability, which are formed due
to high water cement ratio.
o To prevent permeability, lowest possible water cement ratio must be recommended.
o Use of pozzolanic materials also helps to reduce permeability by filling capillary cavities.
7. Moisture
o Moisture present in the atmosphere will also affects durability of concrete structures.
o Efflorescence in concrete occurs due to moisture, which will converts salts into soluble
solutions and when it evaporates salts become crystallized on the concrete surface.
o This will definitely damages the concrete structure and durability will be reduced.
8. Temperature effects
o Concrete is heterogeneous material, when fresh concrete is subjected to high temperature
rate of hydration gets affected and strength and durability becomes reduced.
o Concrete ingredients have different thermal coefficients, so at higher temperatures,
spalling and deterioration of concrete happens.
9. Abrasion
o Deterioration of concrete also occurs due to severe abrasion.
o When concrete is subjected to rapidly moving water, steel tires, floating ice continuously
wearing of surface occurs and durability gets affected.
o Higher the compressive strength higher will be the abrasion resistance.
10. Wetting and Drying Cycles
o When concrete is exposed to alternate wetting and drying conditions such as tidal waves from
sea etc. secondary stresses are developed in concrete.
o Due to these stresses cracks will form and reinforcement is exposed to atmosphere.
o When chlorides or sulfates from sea water meets reinforcement corrosion occurs and
durability of concrete is reduced.
o Use of low-permeable concrete, proper cover for reinforcement can prevent this type of
problems
Carbonation
 Carbonation of concrete is a process by which carbon dioxide from the air penetrates into
concrete and reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonates.
 We have seen earlier that the conversion of Ca(OH)2 into CaCO3 by the action of CO2
results in a small shrinkage.
 Now we shall see another aspect of carbonation. CO2 by itself is not reactive. In the presence
of moisture, CO2 changes into dilute carbonic acid which attacks the concrete and also
reduces alkalinity of concrete.
 Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
 Air contains CO2. The concentration of CO2 in rural air may be about 0.03 per cent
byvolume. In large cities the content may go up to 0.3 per cent or exceptionally it may go up
to even 1.0 per cent. In the tunnel, if not well ventilated the intensity may be much heigher.
 The pH value of pore water in the hardened concrete is generally between 12.5 to 13.5
depending upon the alkali content of cement. The high alkalinity forms a thin passivating
layer around steel reinforcement and protect it from action of oxygen and water. As long as
steel is placed in a highly alkaline condition, it is not going to corrode. Such condition is
known as passivation.
 In actual practice CO2 present in atmosphere in smaller or greater concentration, permeates
into concrete and carbonates the concrete and reduces the alkalinity of concrete.
 The pH value of pore water in the hardened cement paste which was around 13 will be
reduced to around 9.0. When all the Ca(OH)2 has become carbonated, the pH value will
reduce upto about 8.3. 9.19 In such a low pH value, the protective layer gets destroyed and
the steel is exposed to corrosion.
 The carbonation of concrete is one of the main reasons for corrosion of reinforcement. Of
course, oxygen and moisture are the other components required for corrosion of embedded
steel.
Rate of Carbonation: The rate of carbonation depends on the following factors.

 The level of pore water i.e., relative humidity.
 Grade of concrete
 Permeability of concrete
 Whether the concrete is protected or not
 depth of cover
 Time
CHLORIDE RESISTANCE AND STEEL CORROSION
 Chloride present in plain concrete that does not contain steel is generally not a durability
concern. Concrete protects embedded steel from corrosion through its highly alkaline nature.
The high pH environment in concrete (usually greater than 12.5) causes a passive and no
corroding protective oxide film to form on steel. However, the presence of chloride ions from
deicers or seawater can destroy or penetrate the film. Once the chloride corrosion threshold is
reached, an electric cell is formed along the steel or between steel bars and the
electrochemical process of carrions begins.
 The resistance of concrete to chloride is good; however, for severe environments such as
bridge decks, it can be increase by using a low water-cementitious ratio (about 0.40), at least
seven days of moist curing, and supplementary cementitious materials such as silica fume, to
reduce permeability. Increasing the concrete cover over the steel also helps slow down the
migration of chlorides. Other methods of reducing steel corrosion include the use of
corrosion inhibiting admixtures, epoxy-coated reinforcing steel, surface treatments, concrete
overlays, and cathodic protection.
 Chloride enters the concrete from cement, water, aggregate and sometimes from admixtures.
The present day admixtures are generally contain negligible quantity of chloride or what they
call chloride free. Chloride can enter the concrete by diffusion from environment. The Bureau
of Indian Standard earlier specified the maximum chloride content in cement as 0.05 per cent.
But it is now increased the allowable chloride content in cement to 0.1 per cent.
 The amount of chloride required for initiating corrosion is partly dependent on the pH value
of the pore water in concrete. At a pH value less than 11.5 corrosion may occur without the
presence of chloride. At pH value greater than 11.5 a good amount of chloride is required.
Leaching (dissolution of concrete)
When water is added to the cement, the cement hydrates and the paste gains Strength. Cement
hydration is a dissolution-precipitation reaction Clinker partly dissolves until the water becomes
(over)saturated with respect to the CSH and Ca (OH)2 phases, and these phases precipitate. Fresh
tap or distilled water is undersatured with respect to CSH and Ca(OH)2.Therefore, these phases
will dissolve (go into solution) in tap water. This process is called leaching of concrete, and will
result in a higher porosity and therefore lower strength.
Important factors affecting chloride attack
 Initial porosity/permeability of concrete (water needs to go in);

 Properties of water (Ca2+ and CO2-concentrations, pH);
 Type and rate of water flow.
Corrosion of concrete reinforcement
Corrosion of Steel (Chloride induced)

Corrosion of steel in concrete is an electrochemical process. When there is a difference in
electrical potential along the steel reinforcement in concrete, an electrochemical cell is set up. In
the steel, one part becomes anode and other part becomes cathode connected by electrolyte in the
form of pore water in the hardened cement paste. The positively charged ferrous ions Fe++ at the
anode pass into solution while the negatively charged free electrons e– pass through the steel into
cathode where they are absorbed by the constituents of the electrolyte and combine with water
and oxygen to form hydroxyl ions (OH)–. These travel through the electrolyte and combine with
the ferrous ions to form ferric hydroxide which is converted by further oxidation to rust.
The reactions are discribed below
Anodic reactions
Fe Fe++ + 2e–
Fe++ + 2(OH)– Fe(OH)2 (Ferrous hydroxide)
4 Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 4Fe(OH)3 (Ferric oxide)
Cathodic reaction
4e– + O2 + H2O 4(OH)–
 It can be noted that no corrosion takes place if the concrete is dry or probably below relative
humidity of 60 percent because enough water is not there to promote corrosion. It can also be
noted that corrosion does not take place if concrete is fully immersed in water because
diffusion of oxygen does not take place into the concrete. Probably the optimum relative
humidity for corrosion is 70 to 80 per cent.
 The products of corrosion occupy a volume as many as six times the original volume of
steel depending upon the oxidation state. The increased volume of rust exerts thrust on cover
concrete resulting in cracks, spalling or delamination of concrete. With this kind of situations
concrete loses its integrity. The cross section of reinforcement progressively reduces and the
structure is sure to collapse.
Sulphate Attack
 Most soils contain some sulphate in the form of calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium.
They occur in soil or ground water. Because of solubility of calcium sulphate is low, ground
waters contain more of other sulphates and less of calcium sulphate. Ammonium sulphate is
frequently present in agricultural soil and water from the use of fertilizers or from sewage and
industrial effluents. Decay of organic matters in marshy land, shallow lakes often leads to the
formation of H2S, which can be transformed into sulphuric acid by bacterial action. Water
used in concrete cooling towers can also be a potential source of sulphate attack on concrete.
 Therefore sulphate attack is a common occurrence in natural or industrial situations. Solid
sulphates do not attack the concrete severely but when the chemicals are in solution, they find
entry into porous concrete and react with the hydrated cement products. Of all the sulphates,
magnesium sulphate causes maximum damage to concrete. A characteristic whitish
appearance is the indication of sulphate attack.
 The term sulphate attack denote an increase in the volume of cement paste in concrete
or mortar due to the chemical action between the products of hydration of cement and
solution containing sulphates. In the hardened concrete, calcium aluminate hydrate (C-A-H)
can react with sulphate salt from outside. The product of reaction is calcium sulphoaluminate,
forming within the framework of hydrated cement paste. Because of the increase in volume
of the solid phase which can go up to 227 per cent, a gradual disintegration of concrete takes
place.
Freezing and thawing:

The concrete structures particularly, the one which are exposed to atmosphere are subjected to
cycles of freezing and thawing and as such suffer from the damaging action of frost. The frost
action is one of the most powerful weathering action on the durability of concrete. In the extreme
conditions, the life span of concrete can be reduced to just a couple of years.
It is very well known that fresh concrete should not be subjected to freezing temperature. Fresh
concrete contains a considerable quantity of free water; if this free water is subjected to freezing
temperature discrete ice lenses are formed. Water expands about 9% in volume during freezing.
The formation of ice lenses formed in the body of fresh concrete disrupt the fresh concrete
causing nearly permanent damage to concrete. The fresh concrete once subjected to forst action,
will not recover the structural integrity, if later on allowed to harden at a temperature higher
than the freezing temperature. Therefore, the fundamental point to note in dealing with cold
weather concreting is that the temperature of the fresh concrete should be maintained above 0°C.
The hardening concrete also should not be subjected to an extremely low temperature. It has been
estimated that the freezing of water in the hardened concrete may exert a pressure of about 14
MPa. The strength of concrete should be more than the stress to which it is subjected at any point
of time to withstand the damaging action.
There are various explanations for frost damage. One of the theories attributes the damage
directly to the empty space available being insufficient to accommodate the additional Concrete
structures subjected to alternate cycles of freezing and thawing undergoes considerable loss of
durability. solid produced when the free water held in concrete freezes. The damage is related to
the degree of saturation.
Another theory attributes the failure to the production of pressure due to the growth of ice lenses
parallel to the surface of the concrete owing to the migration of water from capillaries where the
freezing point is depressed. This is similar to the theory of forst heaving in soils. Yet another
theory explains the failure to generation of water pressure within the capillary cavities as the ice
crystals grow. This hydraulic pressure can only be delivered by flow of water in other spaces,
since the ice formed on the surface seals the exterior and the pressure generated forces the water
through the fine capillaries. The local pressure so generated eventually exceeds the tensile
strength of the concrete and causes breakdown. In all these theories, the permeability, rate of
absorption and degree of saturation of the concrete are all important factors. Freezing starts at the
surface in the largest cavities and gradually extends to smaller cavities
RESISTANCE TO ALKALI-SILICA (ASR)
ASR is an expansive reaction between reactive forms of silica in aggregates and potassium and
sodium alkalis, mostly from cement, but also from aggregates, pozzolans, admixtures, and
mixing water. The reactivity is potentially harmful only when it produces significant expansion.
Indications of the presence of alkali-aggregate reactivity may be a network of cracks, closed or
spalling joints, or movement of portions of a structure. ASR can be controlled through proper
aggregate selection and/or the use of supplementary cementitious materials (such as fly ash or
slag cement) or blended cements proven by testing to control the reaction.
IS 456 REQUIREMENTS FOR DURABILITY
Classification of Exposure Conditions (According to IS 456- Table-19)

Type of
Environment Description
Exposure
Mild Protected concrete surface
Sheltered from rain or permanently under water or in contact with non-

Moderate
aggressive soils
Severe Alternate wetting and drying or exposed to sea water
Very severe Exposed to sea water spray or corrosive fumes
Extreme Exposed to abrasive action like sea water carrying solids
COMPRESSION STRENGTH TEST
Object:To determine the Compressive strength of given concrete sample.
Theory:
Testing hardened concrete plays an important role in controlling and conforming the quality of
cement concrete work. The main factor in favor of the use of concrete in structures is its
compressive strength. One of the important properties of the hardened concrete is its strength
which represents the ability of concrete to resist forces. If the nature of the force is to produce
compression, the strength is termed compressive strength. The compressive strength of the
hardened concrete is generally considered to be the most important property and is often taken as
an index of the overall quality of concrete. The compressive strength of concrete is defined as the
load which causes the failure of specimen per unit area of cross section in uneasily compression
under given rate of loading.
Apparatus: Cube moulds 150mm size, cylinder moulds 150mm diameter and 300mm height,
weighing machine, ramming rods, 200 tonnes compression testing machine.
Procedure:
Part 1: Preparation of the testing mould
1. Calculate the materials required for the preparation of the mould.
2. Mix the ingredients of the concrete thoroughly in the mechanical mixer until uniform
colour of concrete is obtained.
3. Pour concrete in the moulds oiled with medium viscosity oil. Fill concrete in cube moulds
in 2 layers. Each layer is tamped with 35 evenly distributed strokes.
4. Trowel off concrete flush at the top of the moulds.
5. Immediately after being made, they should be covered with wet mats.
Part 2: Curing
6. Specimens are removed from the moulds after 24 hours and cured in water for 28 days.
7. After 24 hours of casting, cylindrical specimens are capped by neat cement paste of 35%
water content on the capping apparatus. After another 24 hours the specimens are
immersed in water for final curing.
Part 3: Testing
8. Place the specimen centrally in the compression testing machine and load is applied
continuously, uniformly and without shock. The rate of loading is continuously adjusted
through rate control valve by hand at 14N/mm2/minute or 32 tonnes/minute for cube and
25 tonnes for cylinder. The load is increased until the specimen fails and record the
maximum load carried by each specimen during the test. Also notethe type of failure and
appearance of cracks.
Observations and Calculations:

The following information is to be included in the report for each compression test specimen –
 Identification mark
 Date of test
 Age of specimen
 Curing conditions
 Weight of specimen
 Dimensions of specimen
 Cross-sectional area
 Maximum load
 Crushing strength
 Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and type of fracture if it is unusual.
 Mix proportion by weight
 Date of casting
 Water-cement ratio
Observations and Calculations:
Specimen no. 1 2 3 Average

Load on cubes, tonnes
Load on cylinders, tonnes
Average Strength
Cube strength = ---------------------------
Area of Cross section
Average Strength
Precautions:
 The load must be applied at the centre. Even a small eccentricity can cause serious
deviations in results.
 Blows are evenly distributed over the surface of each layer.
 In no case, specimen is allowed to dry, even partially, and must be tested in wet
condition.
 Both mould and base plate must be lightly oiled before use, to prevent concrete from
sticking to the mould.
 Excess compaction must be avoided.
Result:
The compressive strength of cube specimen =
SPLIT TENSILE TEST
Object:
To determine the split tensile strength of concrete of given mix proportions.
Theory:
The tensile strength is one of the basic and important properties of the concrete. The concrete is
not usually expected to resist the direct tension because of its low tensile strength and brittle
nature. However the determination of tensile strength of concrete is necessary to determine the
load at which the concrete members may crack. The cracking is a form of tensile failure. Apart
from the flexure test, the other methods of determining tensile strength of concrete can be
broadly classified as (a) direct method and (b) indirect method. The direct method suffers from a
number of difficulties related to holding the specimen properly in the testing machine without
introducing stress concentration and to the application of uniaxial tensile load, which is free from
eccentricity to the specimen. Because the concrete is weak in tension, even a small eccentricity of
load will induce combined bending and axial force condition and the concrete fails at the
apparent tensile stress other than the tensile strength. Because of the difficulties associated wit
the direct tension test, a number of indirect methods have been developed to determine the tensile
strength. The split tensile test is a well accepted test to determine the tensile strength of concrete.
Apparatus:
Compression testing machine, 2 packing strips of plywood conforming to IS:303-2970 for each
specimen, cylindrical moulds of 150mm diameter and 300mm height, weighing machine, mixer,
tamping rods.
Procedure:
1. Take the mix proportions of concrete ingredients. Mix them thoroughly until uniform
colour of concrete is obtained.
2. Pour the concrete in moulds oiled with medium viscosity oil. Fill the cylinder mould in 4
layers each of approximately 75mm and ram each layer more than 35 times with evenly
distributed strokes.
3. Remove the surplus concrete from the top of the moulds with the help of a trowel.
4. Cover the moulds with wet mats and put the identification marks after about 3 or 4 hours.
5. Remove the specimen from the mould after 24 hours and immerse them in water for the
final curing. The tests are usually conducted at the ages of 7 and 28 days. The age shall be
calculated from the time of addition of water to the ingredients.
6. Test at least 3 specimens for each age of the test.
7. Apply the load without shock and increase it con tenuously at a rate to produce a split
tensile stress of approximately 1.4 to 2.1 N/mm2/minute, until no greater load can be
sustained. Record the maximum load applied to the specimen.
8. Note the appearance of concrete and any unusual feature in the type of failure.
9. Compute the split tensile strength of the specimen to the nearest 0.05N/mm2.
Spilt tensile strength = 2P/ pi DL

Where P = applied load
D = diameter of the specimen
L = length of the specimen
Precautions:
 Before use, the mould and base plate must be oiled lightly.
 The bearing surfaces of the testing machine and that of the packing strips should be wiped
clean.
 Cylinder must be centrally placed in the testing machine.
 Load should be applied without shock.
 Specimen should be immediately tested on removal from water.
Result:
The split tensile strength of concrete sample =
FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST

Object: To determine the Flexural Strength of concrete of given mix proportions.
Theory: Age at Test - Tests shall be made at recognized ages of the test specimens, the most
usual being 7 and 28 days. Where it may be necessary to obtain the early strengths, tests may be
made at the ages of 24 hours ± ½ hour and 72 hours ± 2 hours. The ages shall be calculated from
the time of the addition of water to the dry ingredients. Number of Specimens - At least three
specimens, preferably from different batches, shall be made for testing at each selected age.
Apparatus: Testing Machine - The testing machine may be of any reliable type, of sufficient
capacity for the tests and capable of applying the load at the rate specified in 5.5. The permissible
error shall be not greater than ± 2 percent of the maximum load.
Beam Moulds - The beam moulds shall conform to IS: 10086-1982. The standard size shall be 15
× 15 × 70 cm. Alternatively, if the largest nominal size of the aggregate does not exceed 19 mm,
specimens 10 × 10 × 50 cm may be used. Weights and weighing device, Tools and containers for
mixing, Tamper (square in cross section) etc.
Procedure:1. sampling of Materials - Samples of aggregates for each batch of concrete shall be
of the desired grading and shall be in an air-dried condition. The cement samples, on arrival at
the laboratory, shall be thoroughly mixed dry either by hand or in a suitable mixer in such a
manner as to ensure the greatest possible blending and uniformity in the material.
2. Proportioning - The proportions of the materials, including water, in concrete mixes used for
determining the suitability of the materials available, shall be similar in all respects to those to be
employed in the work.
3. Weighing - The quantities of cement, each size of aggregate, and water for each batch shall be
determined by weight, to an accuracy of 0.1 percent of the total weight of the batch.
4. Mixing Concrete - The concrete shall be mixed by hand, or preferably, in a laboratory batch
mixer, in such a manner as to avoid loss of water or other materials. Each batch of concrete shall
be of such a size as to leave about 10 percent excess after moulding the desired number of test
specimens
5. Mould- The standard size shall be 15 × 15 × 70 cm. Alternatively, if the largest nominal size
of the 67 aggregate does not exceed 19 mm, specimens 10 × 10 × 50 cm may be used.
6. Compacting - The test specimens shall be made as soon as practicable after mixing, and in
such a way as to produce full compaction of the concrete with neither segregation nor excessive
laitance.
7. Curing - The test specimens shall be stored in a place, free from vibration, in moist air of at
least 90 percent relative humidity and at a temperature of 27° ± 2°C for 24 hours ± ½ hour from
the time of addition of water to the dry ingredients.
8. Placing the Specimen in the Testing Machine - The bearing surfaces of the supporting and
loading rollers shall be wiped clean, and any loose sand or other material removed from the
surfaces of the specimen where they are to make contact with the rollers.
9. The specimen shall then be placed in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be
applied to the uppermost surface as cast in the mould, along two lines spaced 20.0 or 13.3 cm
apart.
10. The axis of the specimen shall be carefully aligned with the axis of the loading device. No
packing shall be used between the bearing surfaces of the specimen and the rollers.
11. The load shall be applied without shock and increasing continuously at a rate such that the
extreme fibre stress increases at approximately 7 kg/sq cm/min, that is, at a rate of loading of 400
kg/min for the 15.0 cm specimens and at a rate of 180 kg/min for the 10.0 cm specimens.
12. The load shall be increased until the specimen fails, and the maximum load applied to the
specimen during the test shall be recorded. The appearance of the fractured faces of concrete and
any unusual features in the type of failure shall be noted.
Observation:
Calculations of Mix Proportion
SL. Age of Identificati Size of Span Maximum Position Modulus

No. Specimen on Mark Specimen Length Load (N) of of
(mm) (mm) Fracture Rupture

‘a’ (mm) (MPa)
1
2 7 Days
3
4
5 28 Days `
6
Calculation
The flexural strength of the specimen shall be expressed as the modulus of rupture fb, which, if
„a‟ equals the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support, measured on the centre
line of the tensile side of the specimen, in cm, shall be calculated to the nearest 0.5 kg/sq cm as
follows:
fb={(Pxl)/(axd2)}
when ‗a„ is greater than 20.0 cm for 15.0 cm specimen, or greater than 13.3 cm for a 10.0 cm
specimen, or
fb={(3Pxa)/(bxd2)}
When ‗a„is less than 20.0 cm but greater than 17.0 cm for 15.0 cm specimen, or less than 13.3
cm but greater than 11.0 cm for a 10.0 cm specimen
When ‗a„is less than 20.0 cm but greater than 17.0 cm for 15.0 cm specimen, or less than 13.3
cm but greater than 11.0 cm for a 10.0 cm specimen
Where:
b=measured width in cm of the specimen.
d=measured depth in cm of the specimen at point of failure.
L=length in cm of the span on which the specimen was supported.
P=maximum load in kg applied to the specimen.
Results
i) The average 7 Days Modulus of Rupture of concrete sample is found to be …..…..
ii) The average 28 Days Modulus of Rupture of concrete sample is found to be …..…..
Rebound Hammer Test:
The rebound hammer method could be used for:

As per the Indian code IS: 13311(2)-1992, the rebound hammer test have the following
objectives:
1. To determine the compressive strength of the concrete by relating the rebound index and
the compressive strength
2. To assess the uniformity of the concrete
3. To assess the quality of the concrete based on the standard specifications
4. To relate one concrete element with other in terms of quality
Rebound hammer test method can be used to differentiate the acceptable and questionable parts
of the structure or to compare two different structures based on strength.
Principle of Test: When the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of the
concrete, the spring- controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such rebound depends upon the
surface hardness of concrete. The surface hardness and therefore the rebound is taken to be
related to the compressive strength of the concrete. The rebound is read off along a graduated
scale and is designated as the rebound number or rebound index.
The Rebound Hammer: It consists of a spring controlled mass that slides on a plunger within
a tubular housing. The impact energy required for rebound hammers for different applications is
given inTable 1.
Rebound Hammer Method

Rebound Hammer test is a Non-destructive testing method of concrete which provide a
convenient and rapid indication of the compressive strength of the concrete. The rebound
hammer is also called as Schmidt hammer that consist of a spring controlled mass that slides on a
plunger within a tubular housing.
The operation of rebound hammer is shown in the fig.1. When the plunger of rebound hammer is
pressed against the surface of concrete, a spring controlled mass with a constant energy is made
to hit concrete surface to rebound back. The extent of rebound, which is a measure of surface
hardness, is measured on a graduated scale. This measured value is designated as Rebound
Number (rebound index). A concrete with low strength and low stiffness will absorb more energy
to yield in a lower rebound value.
Principle of Rebound Hammer Test
Rebound hammer test method is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass
depends on the hardness of the concrete surface against which the mass strikes. The operation of
the rebound hammer is shown in figure-1. When the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed
against the concrete surface, the spring controlled mass in the hammer rebounds. The amount of
rebound of the mass depends on the hardness of concrete surface.
Thus, the hardness of concrete and rebound hammer reading can be correlated with compressive
strength of concrete. The rebound value is read off along a graduated scale and is
designated as the rebound number or rebound index. The compressive strength can be read
directly from the graph provided on the body of the hammer.
Procedure for Rebound Hammer Test
Procedure for rebound hammer test on concrete structure starts with calibration of the rebound
hammer. For this, the rebound hammer is tested against the test anvil made of steel having
Brinell hardness number of about 5000 N/mm2.
After the rebound hammer is tested for accuracy on the test anvil, the rebound hammer is held at
right angles to the surface of the concrete structure for taking the readings. The test thus can be
conducted horizontally on vertical surface and vertically upwards or downwards on horizontal

surfaces as shown in figure below
If the rebound hammer is held at intermediate angle, the rebound number will be different for the
same concrete.
Table.2. Quality of Concrete for different values of rebound number
Limitations and Advantages

The Schmidt hammer provides an inexpensive, simple and quick method of obtaining an
indication of concrete strength, but accuracy of ±15 to ±20 per cent is possible only for
specimens cast cured and tested under conditions for which calibration curves have been
established.
The results are affected by factors such as smoothness of surface, size and shape of specimen,
moisture condition of the concrete, type of cement and coarse aggregate, and extent of
carbonation of surface.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Aim: This test is done to assess the quality of concrete by ultrasonic pulse velocity method as per
IS: 13311 (Part 1) – 1992. The underlying principle of this test is –
The method consists of measuring the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse passing through the
concrete being tested. Comparatively higher velocity is obtained when concrete quality is good in
terms of density, uniformity, homogeneity etc.
Apparatus: Electrical pulse generator, Transducer, Amplifier, Electronic timing device.
Theory: The ultrasonic pulse is generated by an electroacoustical transducer. , When the pulse is
induced into the concrete from a transducer, it undergoes multiple reflections at the boundaries of
the different material phases within the concrete. A complex system of stress waves is developed
which includes longitudinal (compressional), (shear transverse) and surface ( rayleigh ) waves.
The receiving transducer detects the onset of the longitudinal waves, which is the fastest.
Because the velocity of the pulses is almost independent of the geometry of the material through
which they pass and depends only on its elastic properties, pulse velocity method is a convenient
technique for investigating structural concrete. The underlying principle of assessing the quality
of concrete is that comparatively higher velocities are obtained when the quality of concrete in
terms of density, homogeneity and uniformity is good
In case of poorer quality, lower velocities are obtained. If there is a crack, void or flaw inside the
concrete which comes in the way of transmission of the pulses, the pulse strength is attenuated
and it passes around the discontinuity, thereby making the path length longer. Consequently,
lower velocities are obtained. The actual pulse velocity obtained depends primarily upon the
materials and mix proportions of concrete. Density and modulus of elasticity of aggregate also
significantly affect the pulse velocity
Procedure
Preparing for use: Before switching on the „V‟ meter, the transducers should be connected to the
sockets marked “TRAN” and ” REC”.
The „V‟ meter may be operated with either:
a) the internal battery,
b) an external battery or
c) the A.C line.
ii) Set reference: A reference bar is provided to check the instrument zero. The pulse time for
the bar is engraved on it. Apply a smear of grease to the transducer faces before placing it on the
opposite ends of the bar. Adjust the „SET REF‟ control until the reference bar transit time is
obtained on the instrument read-out.
iii) Range selection: For maximum accuracy, it is recommended that the 0.1 microsecond range
be selected for path length upto 400mm
.
iv) Pulse velocity: Having determined the most suitable test points on the material to be tested,
make careful measurement of the path length „L‟. Apply couplant to the surfaces of the
transducers and press it hard onto the surface of the material. Do not move the transducers while
a reading is being taken, as this can generate noise signals and errors in measurements. Continue
holding the transducers onto the surface of the material until a consistent reading appears on the
display, which is the time in microsecond for the ultrasonic pulse to travel the distance „L‟. The
mean value of the display readings should be taken when the units digit hunts between two
values.
Pulse velocity=(Path length/Travel time)
v) Separation of transducer leads: It is advisable to prevent the two transducer leads from
coming into close contact with each other when the transit time measurements are being taken. If
this is not done, the receiver lead might pick-up unwanted signals from the transmitter lead and
this would result in an incorrect display of the transit time.
Interpretation of Results
The quality of concrete in terms of uniformity, incidence or absence of internal flaws, cracks and
segregation, etc,indicative of the level of workmanship employed, can thus be assessed using the
guidelines given below, which have been evolved for characterizing the quality of concrete in
structures in terms of the ultrasonic pulse velocity.
Techniques of Measuring Pulse Velocity through Concrete
There are three ways of measuring pulse velocity through concrete. They are:
(a ) Direct transmission.
(b) Indirect transmission.
(c ) Surface transmission.
Core extraction test
The test specimen, cube or cylinder is made from the representative sample of concrete used for a
particular member, the strength of which we are interested. As the member can not be in fact
tested, we test the parallel concrete by making cubes or cylinders.
It is to be understood that the strength of the cube specimen cannot be same as that of the
member because of the differences with respect to the degree of compaction, curing standard,
uniformity of concrete, evaporation, loss of mixing water etc. At best the result of cube or
cylinder can give only a rough estimate of the real strength of the member.
Diameter of Concrete Core
The diameter of the core specimen for the determination of compressive strength in load
bearing structural members shall be at least 3.70 inch[94 mm].
For concrete with nominal maximum size of aggregate greater than or equal to 1.5 inch[37.5
mm], the preferred minimum core diameter shall be ,three times the nominal maximum size of
coarse aggregate but it should be at least two times the nominal maximum size of the coarse
aggregates.
Length of Concrete Core
The preferred length of capped specimen is between 1.9 and 2.1 times the diameter. High lengths
can be trimmed and for specimens having low length, correction factor has to be applied in
compressive test.
Moisture Conditioning of Concrete Core
After cores have been drilled, wipe off the surface drilled water and allow the surface moisture to
evaporate. When surface appears dry, but not greater than 1 hour after drilling, place cores in
separate bags or non absorbent containers and seal to prevent moisture loss.
Maintain cores at ambient temperatures and protect from exposure to direct sunlight. Transport
the cores as soon as possible to laboratory. Cores can be taken out of the bags for a maximum
time of 2 hrs to permit capping before testing.
If water is used for grinding or sawing the core ends, complete these operations as soon as
possible, but not later than 2 days after drilling. Minimize the duration of exposure to water
during end preparation.
Allow the cores to remain in the sealed plastic bags or non absorbent containers for at least 5
days after last being wetted and before testing.
Sawing of the ends of concrete core

The ends of core specimen shall be flat, and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
Sawing should be such that prior to capping the following requirements are met:
a) Projections, if any shall not extend more than 0.2 inch[5mm] above the end surfaces
b) The end surfaces shall not depart from perpendicularity to the longitudinal axis by a slope of
more than 1.8 d or 1:0.3d where d is the average core diameter.
Capping of concrete core

o If the ends of cores do not confirm to the perpendicularity and plainness requirement,
they shall be sawed or ground or capped.
o If cores are capped, the capping device shall accommodate actual core diameters and
produce caps that are concentric with the core ends.
o The material used for capping shall be such that it‟s compressive strength is greater than
that of the concrete in the core.
o Caps shall be made as thin as practicable and shall not flow or fracture before the
concrete fails when specimen is tested.
o Capped surface shall be right angles to the axis of the specimen and shall not detach
depart from a plane by more than 0.05 mm.
o Measure core lengths to the nearest 0.1 inch [2 mm] before capping.
Finally test the core for compressive strength .
Limitations of core extraction test:
• The disadvantages are that while cutting the core, the structural integrity of the concrete
across the full cross-section may be affected to some extent
• Secondly that the diameter to height ratio may be other than that of the standard cylinder.
• Capping of both ends will be required which will again introduce some differences in the
strength.
• Existence of reinforcement will also present difficulty in cutting a clean core.
Penetration test
Principal: NDT test like penetration resistance test to determine the relative strength of
the concrete in the structure. It estimates the strength of concrete from the depth of penetration of
a steel rod. In this method, the steel rod or steel probe is fire on the concrete surface by a sudden
explosion. The penetration is inversely proportional to the compressive strength of concrete in
the standard test condition. This relationship depends on the strength of the aggregates.
Penetration resistance test rapidly and accurately determines the compressive strength of the
concrete. The strength is found out by firing (shooting) a probe or pin on the surface of the
concrete with the known amount of force.
Penetration resistance test is a modern system to measure the compressive strength of hardened
concrete. It measures the concrete compressive strength up to 110 MPa.
Steps: Windsor probe equipment is famous penetration resistance measurement equipment for
the concrete. The technique consists of accessories like a gunpowder actuated driver and
hardened alloy rod probe. It also consists of accessories like loaded cartridges, a depth gauge etc.
A gunpowder actuated driver is used to fire a hardened alloy probe on the concrete. The depth of
penetration depends on the strength of the concrete. Probes are fired in close vicinity and in a set
of three. Use the average value to estimate the strength of concrete.
During testing, measure the exposed length of the probe by a calibrated depth gauge. But, it is
preferable to express the coefficient of variation based on the depth of penetration as concrete
strength is related to penetration depth.
Steel probe has a diameter of 6.3 mm and the length of 73 mm and has conical point at the tip.
The rear of the probe is threaded and screwed, which is 12.6 mm in diameter. It fits snugly (in a
way that is tight or close-fitting or securely) along with a rubber washer into the hole of the gun
(driver).
Windsor probe test results are usually not affected by surface texture and moisture content.
However, damage in the form of cracks in the house may be caused to slender members.
Precaution while Windsor Probe Test
 Provide minimum 150 mm edge distance from the surface of the member.
 Minimum thickness requires for the member is 150 mm.
 Leave 50 mm clear gap from the reinforcements present in the member since the presence of
the reinforcing bars within the zone of influence of the penetrating probe affects the
penetration depth.
 Provide initial velocity of 183 m/s to probe and 1% difference is allowable in velocity.
 Probe to be fired at the right angle from the surface
Pull out test
The test measures the force required to pull out a previously cast in steel insert with an embedded
enlarged end in the concrete. In this operation, a cone of concrete is pulled out and the force
required is related to the compressive strength of concrete
Principle
this test is based on the principle that the force required to pull out a cone of steel embedded in
concrete is proportional to the strength of concrete.
Test Procedure
Pull out insert (shown in fig) is embedded in plain concrete during pouring. When the strength is
required to be determined, the force is applied at the embedded end. The force required to pull
out the assembly is measured.
Uses:
1. Determine in-situ compressive strength of the concrete

2. Ascertain the strength of concrete for carrying out post tensioning operations.
3. Determine the time of removal of forms and shores based on actual in-situ strength of the
structure.
4. Terminate curing based on in-situ strength of the structure.
5. It can be also used for testing repaired concrete sections.
Limitations
 Steel rod assembly has to be embedded in concrete during pouring and hence test cannot
be undertaken at later ages.
 Repair of damaged concrete is required.
Evaluation
 The pull out assembly is pulled with a lump of concrete, which is subjected to tension and
shear and the force required to pull out is related to shearing strength of concrete and not
to the compressive strength.
 Ratio of pull out force to compressive strength decreases slightly with increase in the
level of strength.
 Pull out may not be carried out till completion. It my be sufficient to apply a
predetermined force to the embedded rod and if it is not pulled out, a given strength is
assumed to exist.
 According to Malhotra, the pull out test is superior to Schmidt hammer and penetration
resistance test because larger volume and greater depth of concrete are involved in the
test. Repair of concrete after test is also required. Relation between compressive strength
and pull out force is shown in figure below.
Evaluation of Pull Out Test of Concrete

Important question and answers:
1. Explain the factors influencing strength of concrete?

2. Write a note on Creep and Shrinkage.
3. What is shrinkage and explain the type of shrinkage.
4. Write a short note on Gel space ratio.
5. What are different strength test on concrete. Explain any one.
6. How do you calculate compressive strength of concrete?
7. How do you calculate tensile strength of concrete?
8. How do you calculate Flexure strength of concrete?
9. Explain maturity concept of concrete.
10. What is durability and explain its significance.
11. Explain the Factors effecting durability of concrete.
12. Explain mechanism of carbonation in concrete.
13. Explain mechanism of sulphate attack in concrete.
14. Explain mechanism of chloride attack in concrete.
15. Explain mechanism of corrosion in concrete.
16. Write a note on rebound hammer test.
17. Write a note on peneteration test.
18. Write a note on pull out test.
19. Write a note on ultra sonic pulse velocity test.
20. Write a note on core extraction test.
21. What are IS code specifications for Durability of concrete.
Assignment questions:
1. Explain the factors influencing strength of concrete?

2. What is shrinkage and explain the type of shrinkage.
3. Explain the Factors effecting durability of concrete.
4. Explain mechanism of carbonation in concrete.
5. How do you calculate compressive strength of concrete?
6. Write a note on rebound hammer test.
7. What are IS code specifications for Durability of concrete.
8. Write a short note on Gel space ratio.

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Module III Concrete Technology

1.1 Factors influencing strength

Quality of Raw Materials

Water / Cement Ratio

Coarse / fine aggregate ratio

Aggregate / Cement Ratio

2.1 Water/Cement Ratio

where S = Strength of concrete

3.1 Gel/Space Ratio

The following example show how to calculate the gel/space ratio.

4.1 Maturity Concept of Concrete

Maturity = Σ (time x temperature)

Its maturity would be equal to

The following example illustrate the theory:

6.1 CREEP OF CONCRETE:

Microscopic Rheological Approach

Factors Affecting Creep

2. Influence of Mix Proportions:

Effects of Creep on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

Types of Shrinkage in Concrete

(a) Plastic Shrinkage in concrete

Factors Affecting Shrinkage of Concrete

1. Humidity (Drying Condition)

Humidity (Drying Condition)

Water Cement Ratio

Moisture Movement in Concrete

Type of Coarse Aggregates

8.1 Durability of concrete:

Concrete will remain durable if:

1. Physical durability of concrete

Causes for the Lack of Durability in Concrete

1. Extreme Weathering Conditions

Factors Affecting Durability of Concrete

10. Wetting and Drying Cycles

Rate of Carbonation: The rate of carbonation depends on the following factors.

CHLORIDE RESISTANCE AND STEEL CORROSION

Leaching (dissolution of concrete)

Important factors affecting chloride attack

 Initial porosity/permeability of concrete (water needs to go in);

Corrosion of concrete reinforcement

Corrosion of Steel (Chloride induced)

The reactions are discribed below

Freezing and thawing:

RESISTANCE TO ALKALI-SILICA (ASR)

IS 456 REQUIREMENTS FOR DURABILITY

Classification of Exposure Conditions (According to IS 456- Table-19)

Mild Protected concrete surface

Sheltered from rain or permanently under water or in contact with non-

Severe Alternate wetting and drying or exposed to sea water

Very severe Exposed to sea water spray or corrosive fumes

Extreme Exposed to abrasive action like sea water carrying solids

COMPRESSION STRENGTH TEST

Object:To determine the Compressive strength of given concrete sample.

Observations and Calculations:

Observations and Calculations:

Specimen no. 1 2 3 Average

SPLIT TENSILE TEST

Spilt tensile strength = 2P/ pi DL

The split tensile strength of concrete sample =

FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST