Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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A comprehensive study of waste coconut shell aggregate as raw material

in concrete
Radha Tomar, Kamal Kishore ⇑, Hemant Singh Parihar, Nakul Gupta
Departmentof Civil Engineering, GLA University, Mathura 281406, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The eminence exploitation of raw materials from the environment causes the natural sources to degrade
Received 3 September 2020 and limits the future practices in the construction sector. The economy in this sector holds around 40% of
Received in revised form 25 September the total flow of source materials into the GDP of the nation. The production of such materials are either
2020
consume a good amount of energy, responsible for causes of CO2, NOx, SOx, into the atmosphere or leads
Accepted 28 September 2020
to the restriction on the usages of available natural sources in the future. Hence, the implementation of
Available online xxxx
new practices for the incorporation of raw materials to save the extraction of available natural sources in
the construction can be a beneficial foot step. The use of an agricultural by-product i.e. coconut shell can
Keywords:
Coconut shell concrete
be a promising material for manufacturing the concrete in the partial replacement of coarse aggregates.
Eco-friendly agricultural waste Result indicates that coconut shell can be used as lightweight concrete which can be used in non-load
Greenhouse gases bearing structures, strip footings and non-structural elements. Environmental concerns can also be min-
Load bearing structures imizing by making such sustainable efficient practices by the use of these waste coconut shell materials.
Light weight concrete Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Materials, Processing & Characterization.

1. Introduction plastic waste, glass waste, rubber waste, tin scraps, some natural
and by-product pozzolans, and bio and agricultural wastes [12–
The global use of concrete in making structures is second largest 14].
after the water consumption [1].The preparation of cement con- The application of waste bio-products can be a promising tool
crete involves the mixing of different ingredients such as aggre- for reducing the impact of regular usage of natural raw materials.
gates, water, cement, admixtures and also sometimes, the reused Moreover, extensive studies are going on in this field from past
by-products or recycled demolished aggregates [2–6]. The produc- decades to produce an economically sustainable construction
tion and manufacturing of concrete and its source material con- material. Recent coverage of studies on the application of coconut
sume a considerable amount of energy, emitting a great footprint shells is the main attraction [15]. As per Food and Agriculture
of CO2 into the atmosphere. Hence, polluting the environment Organization of the United Nations (FAO), India is the world’s
through expulsion of greenhouse gases into the climate [7–9]. third-largest producer of coconuts, produced nearly 10 million ton-
Moreover, the continuous use of raw materials such as coarse nes during 2009. The production usually occurs in Kerala, Tamil
aggregate, fine aggregate, cement and natural additives causes Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India
pressure on the ground to explore more of its quantity to achieve [16]. The contribution of coconut production worldwide is shown
the targeted objectives. Therefore, continuous extraction of sources in Table 1. The disposal of these used coconut shell is also a big
causes reduction of natural resources thereby increasing the cost of problem. The application of these agricultural wastes in the prepa-
raw materials day by day [10,11]. From past decades, researchers ration of concrete mix can be a remedial measure to solve the
are exploring some new sustainable and eco-friendly construction problem of disposal and soil pollution. Coconut shells can be used
materials that can replace the conventional materials. Some of as an ingredients in the partial or complete replacement of coarse
them are classified as treated demolished concrete’s aggregates, aggregate in manufacturing/ making light structures [17–19].
Usage of coconut shell as coarse aggregate in concrete brings a
drastic change in concrete technology because the rigidity and
⇑ Corresponding author. impact strength of coconut shell is high. Additionally, the practice
E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Kishore).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.09.754
2214-7853/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Materials, Processing & Characterization.

Please cite this article as: R. Tomar, K. Kishore, H. Singh Parihar et al., A comprehensive study of waste coconut shell aggregate as raw material in concrete,
Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.09.754
R. Tomar, K. Kishore, H. Singh Parihar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 1 The responses of various researchers and findings are collectively

Top five countries producing coconut [18]. explained with the aim of investigation conducted for producing
S. No Country Coconut production Coconut production light weight concrete with or without supplementary cementitious
(2017) (2018) materials. This study will surely helpful for academician,
1. Indonesia 18,983,378 18,555,371 researcher and industry in finding out the critical variables respon-
2. Philippines 14,049,131 14,726,165 sible for strength acquisition and durable characteristics.
3. India 11,469,837 11,706,343
4. Sri Lanka 2,575,230 2,623,000
5. Brazil 2,342,942 2,346,750 2. Coconut shell (CS) as raw material

The cultivation and harvesting of coconut agricultural product

is done in greater than ninety five nations of the world. Top five
of coconut shell in concrete as coarse aggregate not only reducing
countries producing coconut are shown in the Table1. India also
the problem of waste disposal but also reducing the concrete cost
relies on the production of coconut. These produced coconuts
which makes it very economical [16]. Several researchers agree on
serves in various sectors of the society. The gentle humid environ-
the usage of coconut shell as coarse aggregate in concrete. They
ment, availability of sea shores and changeable seasons resulted in
investigated the behaviour and characteristic of this bio-based
the best place for coconut trees to grow more in the India’s climatic
concrete. Rajeevan and Shamjith [20] investigated the feasibility
environment [29]. Major states and union territories in India, pro-
of waste coconut shell in small sized fractions for the replacement
ducing and exporting coconut to the industries are Karnataka, Ker-
of coarse aggregate to produce the light weight structures. They
ala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Maharashtra etc. The
revealed that replaced aggregate can be a effective tool in produc-
Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu states have
ing special structures without losing the engineering properties
been recorded as the huge producer of agricultural coconut in
and strength of the structures. Saifullah [21] also studied on the
the recent years. They holds their share of about 90% in total pro-
performance of such concrete in terms of mechanical strengths.
duction of coconut in India [30]. The coconut tree is very useful
He used 1:1.5: 3 mix proportion with a constant W/C ratio of 0.5.
plants in the world. Coconut shells are mostly used in making
He found that coarse aggregate can be effectively replaced with
ornaments, utensils, decorative items, and it is also a good source
20% coconut shell aggregate as suggested by the American Con-
of activated charcoal. In Construction industry, the waste of coco-
crete Institute (ACI). Ramesh et al. [22] prepared a different mix
nut cover can be utilize in replacing a certain portion of natural
design in accordance with IS 456:2000 [23] and IS 10262: 2009
source of coarse aggregate obtained through mechanical process
[24] for M20 grade cement concrete with W/C ratio of 0.6. They
for preparing cement concrete [31–33]. Before producing concrete
replace coconut shell chip in 5%, and 10% with coarse aggregate
using coconut aggregate, the acquisition of coconut shells should
to produce cement concrete cured for 28 days. They show that
be made prior from the local industries. After obtaining raw coco-
5% replacement of coconut shell chips increases the compressive
nut shells, they were firstly sun dried for a period of one month
strength while lesser split tensile strength for 15% chips replace-
before crushing [33]. As coconut covers belongs to wood category
ment was obtained. However, there was no significant effect was
leading to the water absorption capacity. Hence, before using it in
observed in conventional cement concrete. Prakash et al. [25]
making concrete, they should be allowed in water to soak sufficient
investigated the influence of fly ash-based coconut shell aggre-
moisture so that they become saturated [34]. Besides this, the
gate’s concrete. They replaced a certain amount of cement in 0%,
soaked materials should be kept for drying in the presence of sun
10%, 20%, and 30% with fly ash and coarse aggregate with industrial
light. Subsequently, crushed them in the size of 18–20 mm [35].
waste product of coconut cover fractions in finding the mechanical
The obtained estimated coconut shell density should be lies about
and durable characteristic of concrete. They concluded in his study
1.60 gm/cm3.
that the provision of fly ash in concrete not only helps in enhancing
the performance of concrete but also lessen the chances of perme-
able voids, water absorption, sorptivity, and chloride permeability. 3. Standard requirements for CS aggregate
In another study, Prakash et al. [26] investigate the mechanical
performance, modulus of elasticity and ultrasonic pulse velocity The mechanical and durable performance of the concrete
on fibre reinforced coconut shell based fly ash concrete. They con- obtained using CS aggregate must ensure the basic requirement
cluded in his study that steel fibres lowers the slump rate and den- of the concrete strengths as per suggested by the Indian code IS
ser the concrete matrix. Meanwhile, increased compressive 456:2000 [23]. The CS aggregate concrete shows positive results
strength of 39% and 17% modulus of elasticity were achieved. in achieving this target. The strength obtained through such con-
Hence, steel fibre imposes a positive effect in increasing the crete should be acceptable required for structural concrete as sug-
mechanical strengths and durability of coconut based concrete. gested by the different international codes requirements [15]. The
Mechanical and durable properties estimated by these above
researchers were imposing a positive result. However, the bond
Table 2
strength and impact resistance of coconut shell concrete should Minimum physical requirement of coconut shell aggregate [37].
be checked for advocacy of such concrete in construction. Gunase-
Physical Properties Coconut Shell
karan et al. [27] studied and compared the bond strength and
impact resistance of coconut shell concrete using two different Maximum Size (mm) 12.50
Shell Thickness (mm) 2–6
w/c ratios in design mixes. They revealed that the bond strength
Moisture Content (%) 4–5
obtained by pull out test was much higher than convention con- Bulk Density (kg/m3) 650–660
crete and more comparable with standard codes IS 456:2000 [23] Specific Gravity 1.05–1.20
and BS 8110 [28]. Water Absorption (%) for 24 h 24
This review paper investigated the possible chances of adoption Fineness Modulus 6.55
Impact Value 4.50–8
of waste coconut covers in the preparation of concrete by replacing
Abrasion Value 1.63
a certain part of coarse aggregate with coconut chips of appropri- Void Ratio 0.894
ate size. The study covers the physical and mechanical properties Porosity 47.2
and some targeted durable properties of coconut based concrete.

2
R. Tomar, K. Kishore, H. Singh Parihar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

development of strength greatly depends upon the shape and size 45

of the aggregate. The physical variables for coconut shell are shown 40

Compressive Strength
in Table 2. 35
30

(MPa)
25
4. Performance of coconut shell in concrete 20
15
Coconut shell (CS) as coarse aggregates in concrete satisfies the 10
basic strength requirements. During the preparation of concrete 5
mix, there was no segregation and bleeding of the fresh concrete 0
[41] [42] [43] [16] [17] [18] [44] [45] [46] [47]
obtained. The mixture was homogenous and compactable [36].
Prepared concrete had very low slump values. Studies suggest that Fig. 1. Compressive strength obtained in different research trends.
on addition of coconut shell the workability decreases. Flakiness of
CS aggregates reduces the movement of aggregates hence reduces
the workability [37]. Incorporating soaked wood item in concrete, 2.5

Tensile Strength ( MPa)

definitely decreases the workability of concrete due to absorption
2
of more water present in the mix for concrete preparation [38].
Slump values at various percentage of coconut shell are shown in 1.5
the Table 3. Besides this, the practice of plasticizers and or super
1
plasticizers may be done to reduce the water demand in the con-
crete mix. The prepared concrete from such admixtures not only 0.5
reduces the water demand but also enhance the strength [39]. 0
[41] [42] [43] [16] [17] [18] [44] [45] [46] [47]
4.1. Density and surface texture of concrete
Fig. 2. Tensile strength of CS concrete.

The normal conventional concrete has density of about 2400 kg/

m3 while light weight concrete has 1900 kg/m3 and high density ASTM C330 requires minimum compressive strength of 17 N/
concrete have unit weights ranging from 3000 kg/m3 to 3500 kg/ mm2 at 28 day. To satisfy this criterion, CS aggregates needed the
m3 [40]. As the fraction of coconut shell in concrete increases, 480 kg/m3 to 500 kg/m3 of cement content in the production of
the density of the concrete decreases because the specific gravity concrete using CS as aggregate. Additionally, the split tensile
of conventional aggregates is around 2.67 while the specific gravity strength and compressive strength of the CS concrete decreases
of CS aggregates is around 1.33 [41]. It will fall under the category with an increase in the percentage of coconut aggregate [46].
of Light weight concrete. Coconut shells are flaky and irregular in Table 4 showing the effect of various proportions of CS aggregate
shape. The texture of coconut shell is smooth on one face and in replacement of coarse aggregate in the cement concrete and
rough on the other face [42]. their compressive and tensile strengths. The compressive strength
of the coconut aggregate concrete shows sensitivity to the size of
4.2. Compressive and split tensile strength of CS concrete coconut aggregate used. The concrete cubes produced from
16 mm aggregate size gave high compressive strength compared
The compressive strength of CS concrete depends on the with that of 10 mm and 12 mm respectively. The compressive
strength of the coconut shells [43]. In the initial days, the failure strength of coconut shell aggregate concrete at 28 day test was
of CS concrete due to compression is mainly attributed by the bond obtained as 16 N/mm2 that ensures the fulfilment of lightweight
failure between coconut shell aggregate and the hardened cement concrete [47].
paste. Moreover, in later stage, the reserved strength of coconut
shell aggregate responsible for compression failure [44]. Usually, 5. Durability of agricultural coconut-based concrete
the strength obtained in conventional concrete is due to the com-
pacted aggregate particles, closed morphology of aggregates and 5.1. Sorptivity test
the pozzolans with the medium inter particle relationship, lesser
porosity and the development of strengths after certain periods. This test is usually carried out to investigate the information
However, the nature of CS concrete is different from the normal regarding the pore structure of the cement concrete. This method
concrete. In CS concrete, the role of inter particle bond is lesser helps in visualizing the quality of concrete as superior or lowers
in the generation of mechanical strengths due to the smooth tex- depending upon the absorption values of the concrete [57]. This
ture of the concrete. As a result, lesser stiffness, and lesser strength test is usually in accordance with ASTM C 642-82. The objective
are the critical factors for the light weight concrete [45]. The com- of this test is to find out the water absorption rate in CS aggregate
pressive and tensile strength of CS aggregate concrete obtained by concrete by evaluating the gain in the mass of a specimen resulting
different researchers are shown in Figs. 1 and 2 respectively. from absorption of water with respect to time when only one sur-
face of the specimen is immersed into the water [35]. Yerramala
Table 3
and Ramachandrudu [41] explains that the sorptivity of mix
Slump value of coconut shell aggregate concrete at various percentage of coconut depends on the volume of paste matrix and the interfacial transi-
shell [42]. tion zone nearby the aggregate particles. Yashida Nadir et al. [58]
CS replacement (%) Slump value (mm)
conducted a test to determine the sorptivity of coconut shell aggre-
gate concrete. The results of sorptivity test are shown in Table 5.
0 72
10 66
Tests conducted by various authors shows that the sorptivity val-
20 60 ues for CS concrete is slightly higher than the values of the conven-
30 52 tional concrete this may be because of the association of entrapped
40 46 air with the addition of coconut shell. A higher absorption rate at
50 37
the earlier stage of CS specimens shows the weaker resistance to
3
R. Tomar, K. Kishore, H. Singh Parihar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 4
Compressive and tensile strength obtained using coconut shell aggregate.

Authors Reference Percentage Replacement With CS Strength at 28 day

Compressive (MPa) Tensile (MPa)
Lone et al [51] 0 22.87 2.50
25 22 2.45
50 18.85 2.30
Shraddhath et al [52] 0 42.6 2.1
25 41.3 1.8
50 40.5 1.7
75 31.2 1.7
100 50.5 0.8
Reddy et al. [53] 0 24 2.5
25 22.62 2.23
50 14.93 1.25
100 5.48 0.5
Rajeevan&Shamjith [20] 15 24.6 2.57
20 20.4 1.98
25 20.9 2.45
30 21.2 2.45
35 21 2.41
Saifullahet al. [21] 0 26.83 2.32
10 24.28 2.24
25 16.68 1.92
50 10.28 1.60
Ramesh et al. [22] 0 22.22 2.27
5 26.44 1.6
10 19.33 1.63
Behera et al. [54] 0 40.34 3.05
5 30.67 2.06
10 23.17 1.76
George et al. [55] 0 24.00 2.48
25 22.62 2.22
50 14.93 1.27
100 5.48 0.495
Subramaniand Anbuvel [56] 0 20.30 2.39
5 19.60 2.12
10 18.84 1.86
15 18.62 1.24
20 18.46 0.8
De Costa et al. [57] 0 30.33 2.55
4 26.45 2.23
8 25.11 2.15
12 23.56 2.07
16 20.11 1.91
20 18.11 1.75

Table 5
Analysis of sorptivity test.

Mix Cumulative volume of water absorbed/surface area of exposure(cm) Sorptivity  10-3

30 min 60 min 90 min 120 min cm/min0.5
0% R*by CS 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.07 5.40
18.5% R by CS 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.11 7.30

R* means Replacement.

water absorption than the later stage [48]. At early stage the coco- ment. For a better serviceable concrete, it should be resistant
nut shell concrete shows low resistance to water absorption against chemical attacks during its service life [50]. Normally,
because coconut shell have curved shape and they are elongated higher grade of concrete is preferable for providing resistant
and there is also absence of bond between the cement paste and against such attacks. Ganesan et al. [51] prepare 100 cubes of
CS aggregates. While at later stage, it shows better resistance to M30 grade and cured for 180 days. He used 3% H2SO4 solution
water absorption because of improved bond strength between and 3% NaSO4 for checking the behaviour of concrete under chem-
the cement paste and the CS aggregates [49]. ical environment. After 180 days the compressive strength of the
specimen was determined. Loss in compressive strength by chem-
5.2. Resistance to chemical attack ical attack with that of control specimen was determined [52]. The
statistics of the various attacks are summarized in Table 6.
Chemical attack is generally accounts for the agents that are After immersing in 3% of H2SO4 solution for 180 days the visual
externally applied or gets in contact with the surrounding environ- inspection of the specimen shows that there were changes in sur-
4
R. Tomar, K. Kishore, H. Singh Parihar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 6 corrosion inhibitors, and shrinkage reducers [68–70]. Moreover,

RCPT ratings (ASTM C 1202) [73] the presence of sugar retards the setting time of the concrete. In
Charge applied (Coulomb) Chloride ion penetration case of high contamination with sugar, concrete might not set
Less than 100 Negligible and will fail to achieve the required strength [59]. Also, the provi-
100–1000 Very Low sion of Naphthalene based super plasticizer reduces the water
1000–2000 Low demand by 20–25% of total water demand and enhances the per-
2000–4000 Moderate formance of concrete. Concrete prepared with 10% coconut shell
Greater than 4000 High
aggregate replaced with coarse aggregate in mix design of M 25
and M 30, showing a pH value of 12 over the other concrete [40].

face texture for all the specimens and they were subjected to sur-
face erosion compared to these specimens, deterioration happened 5.4. Consequences of chloride ions in CS concrete
in the specimens of Na2SO4 solution was small.
The most common type of environmental attack for reinforced
5.3. Role of pH and admixtures on CS concrete concrete (RC) structures is chloride penetration that checks the
causes of corrosion in reinforcing bars due to ingress of chloride
Concrete is an alkaline material having pH values around 12.5 ions in the concrete [60,61]. The penetration of chloride ions from
and can be easily attacked by acid [53]. Concrete is also affected water, air, and from materials responsible for degradation of con-
by the surrounding environment. The relative humidity and blow- crete structures due to continuous rusting of steel bars. Hence,
ing air having harmful salts (usually having pH between 6 and 7) reduces the strength, durability and aesthetics of the RC structures.
and or gases also affects and injected in the concrete through micro Rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT) is a detrimental test for ana-
pores of the concrete structures. The incorporation of salty gases lysing the chloride penetration in reinforced structures that checks
causes pH to be lowered from 12.5, resulting in lesser holding the chloride ingress in terms of coulomb readings. ASTM C1202
capacity of cement to bind the aggregate. Hence, various visible suggests 60 V direct current (DC) for 6 h in operating RCPT
attacks on concrete can be seen. Concrete prepared with 10% coco- machine [62]. At 28 days, RCPT values for ordinary Portland
nut shell aggregate replaced with coarse aggregate in mix design of cement (OPC) concrete varies from 3581 to 4549C [63], for coconut
M 25 and M 30, showing a pH value of 12 over the other concrete shell concrete about 2765–3880C, and for light weight concrete, it
[40]. Some defects arise in concrete after times are acid attacks, ranges in between 2110C–3330C [64]. CS aggregate concrete
sulphate attacks, carbonation, corrosion and also alakali-silica shows moderate chloride-ion penetration ability and produce bet-
reactions. These attacks on concrete resulted in degradation in ter quality of CS concrete and shows that there is an improvement
the strength of concrete and reduce the serviceability of concrete of the pore structure in the CS concrete. Fig. 3 shows the variability
structures [62]. The availability of such variables should be pre- of chloride ingress in the CS concrete.
assumed before installation of structures near such climatic condi- From Fig. 3, the chloride penetrability of fly ash-based CS con-
tions and remedial measures should be kept ready for undesirable crete gets reduced over time passes. Hence, it is cleared that the
effects after longer time for such serviceable structures. Many provision of fly ash or may be other pozzolanic materials reduces
chemical and mineral admixtures are available to worked on speci- the porosity of the structures leading to the more compacted sur-
fic problems arise due to various attacks. These admixtures can be face areas [25]. Such concrete possess lesser charge to be passed in
mixed during mixing of concrete. Some admixtures may be classi- the specimen. The nature of chloride ions in different charges are
fied as retarders, accelerators, water reducers, super-plasticizers, shown in Table 6.

Fig. 3. Chloride penetration test on fly ash based CS concrete [24].

5
R. Tomar, K. Kishore, H. Singh Parihar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

6. Sustainability and cost analysis of CS concrete for reducing the impact of emitted greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere.
The rapid depletion of natural resources is the key concern of
the present era. The continuous use of natural source material in CRediT authorship contribution statement
preparing concrete imposes a serious pressure on environment to
explore more of it from available stock. Hence, one should move Radha Tomar: Investigation, Methodology. Kamal Kishore:
on alternate one in maintaining the balance between ecology and Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing, Writing - review &
the applications. The application of coconut covers as aggregate editing, Data Curation, Formal analysis, Writing-original draft.
in concrete either in coarse or in powder form reduces the force Hemant Singh Parihar: Supervision. Nakul Gupta: Visualization,
of querying coarse aggregate from natural stones. Hence, conserv- Validation.
ing a greater part of granites, reducing a substantial amount of
depleting natural sources and at the same time, reducing the prob- Declaration of Competing Interest
lem of waste disposal in India. The use of waste coconut products
not only reduces the emission of greenhouse gases but also helps in The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
conserving the sources. It is estimated that the use of coconut shell cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
along with various pozzolans in producing concrete can be a great to influence the work reported in this paper.
tool in achieving the targeted strengths and in reducing the capil-
larity action of concrete by increasing the impermeability of the
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