ENS 233: SOIL HABITAT (35 HOURS)

Purpose of the course

To introduce students the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the Earth

Expected Learning Outcomes of the Course

By the end of the course the learner should:
1. To foster deep interest in the principles of soil habitats and conservation.
2. To develop a sound understanding of a specialist area, habitat conservation, focusing on management issues.
3. To develop independent study skills and the ability to present logical, scientific and cogent arguments on a range of
issues concerning to soil habitats, conservation and management
4. To provide students with a broad and substantive understanding of the relationship between natural and human
modified environments, such as contaminated soils.
Course Content
Introduction to Soil Science, soil forming processes; soil components; minerals and organic matter; soil aggregates;
chemical reactions on soil colloidal surfaces; soil aeration; drying and wetting of soil; soil physical properties; emphasis
on soil as a habitat; soil as a disturbed environment; viruses and bacteria in the soil; soil contamination with heavy metals;
remediation of contaminated soils; application of molecular biology in development of microbes to degrade hazardous
pollutants in the soils.

Mode of Delivery
Lectures, group work, interactive discussions and guided presentations, laboratory practical sessions and field visits.
Instructional Materials and or/Equipment
Audio-visual devices, computers/Internet services, white boards, smart boards, flip charts, journals
Course Assessment
Assessment consists of Continuous Assessment Tests (30%) and end of Semester written examination (70%). Learners
will evaluate course delivery on a rating scale.
Core Reading Materials
1. Bardgett, RD (2007).The biology of soil: a community and ecosystem approach. Oxford University Press (Oxford)
2. Dion, P (2010). Soil Biology and Agriculture in the Tropics. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, (Berlin, Heidelberg)
3. Maria C. &Hernandez S (2013).Soil Processes and Current Trends in Quality Assessment.InTech, Chapters published
February 27, 2013 under CC BY 3.0 license. DOI: 10.5772/45835.
4. Roland NI(2012). Soil Fertility.InTech, DOI: 10.5772/5541
Recommended Reference Materials
1. Bationo, A (2007). Advances in integrated soil fertility management in sub - Saharan Africa: challenges and
opportunities. Springer (Netherlands)
2. Lozet, J (1991).Dictionary of soil science. 2nd Edition, A.A. Balkema (Rotterdam)
3. Maria, C., Hernandez-Soriano (2014). Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination., ISBN 978-953-51-
1235-8, 918 pages, Publisher: InTech, Chapters published March 26, 2014 under CC BY 3.0 license. DOI: 10.5772/57086.
4. Mitchell, JK (1993).Fundamentals of soil behavior. 2nd Edition, Wiley (New York)
5. Varma, A, and Oelmüller, R (2007).Advanced Techniques in Soil Microbiology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, (Berlin,
Heidelberg)

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SCIENCE

Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource, focusing on its formation, composition, properties, and its role in
supporting ecosystems, agriculture, and human activities. Soil serves as a vital medium for plant growth, regulates water
supply, and contributes to the Earth's nutrient cycles. The field of soil science combines aspects of biology, chemistry,
geology, and environmental science to understand how soils function and how they can be managed for sustainable use.
Soil Forming Processes
Soil formation, also known as pedogenesis, is a complex process driven by a combination of biological, physical, and
chemical factors over time.

The development of soil is influenced by five key factors: parent material, climate, topography, organisms, and time.

1. Parent Material: This refers to the underlying geological material (e.g., bedrock, organic material) from which soil is
formed. The mineral composition of the parent material influences the soil's texture, structure, and nutrient content.
2. Climate: Temperature and precipitation play a crucial role in soil formation. Warm, wet climates tend to accelerate
chemical weathering and organic matter decomposition, leading to quicker soil development. In contrast, colder or drier
climates slow these processes.
3. Topography: The landscape's slope and elevation affect drainage, erosion, and the distribution of organic material. For
example, soils on steep slopes are more likely to be eroded, while flat areas accumulate more organic matter and develop
thicker soils.
4. Organisms: Plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms contribute to soil formation by decomposing organic material
and mixing soil layers. Roots break up parent material, while microorganisms break down organic matter, enriching the
soil with nutrients.
5. Time: Soil formation is a slow process that can take thousands of years. Over time, weathering of parent material,
organic matter accumulation, and the actions of organisms gradually transform raw material into mature soil profiles with
distinct horizons.

Soil Horizons
Soils typically develop into layers, called horizons, which vary in composition, color, and texture. The main horizons
include:
 O Horizon: The organic-rich surface layer composed of decomposed leaves, plants, and other organic materials.
 A Horizon (Topsoil): Rich in organic material and minerals, this layer is crucial for plant growth.
 B Horizon (Subsoil): A zone of accumulation where minerals like clay, iron, and aluminum build up from layers above.
 C Horizon: The least weathered layer, composed of partially disintegrated parent material.
 R Horizon: The bedrock, which is the unweathered parent material that underlies the soil.
Soil Types
Soils are classified into various types based on their physical and chemical properties. These types include:
 Sandy Soil: Drains quickly due to large particle size but lacks the ability to hold nutrients and water well.
 Clay Soil: Retains water and nutrients due to its small particle size but may become compacted, restricting air and
water flow.
 Loam: A balanced mix of sand, silt, and clay, considered ideal for agriculture due to its excellent water retention and
drainage capabilities.

Four main components of soil

The four components of soil include:
 Mineral matter – 45%
 Organic matter – 5%
 Air – 25%
 Water – 25%

1. Minerals
 The mineral portion of the soil is derived from the bedrock from which it was formed. Some of the mineral particles,
such as sand, still consist of rock.

 They are chemically and structurally the same as the parent rock, but have been ground by weather, water, glaciers, and
other natural forces into small pieces.

 Other particles like most of the microscopic clay particles have been dissolved and precipitated again, perhaps many
times, to reach a form that is quite different from the native rock.

 The sizes of individual particles of the mineral component are responsible for the texture of the soil.

 Soil textures are classified as sand (the coarsest texture), silt, and clay (the finest texture, with particles 1,000 times
smaller than large sand particles). Loam is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay.

2. Organic matter
 Living and dead plant and animal matter in various stages of growth and decay constitute the organic part of the soil.

 Most native, or unamended, soils contain from less than 1% to 5% organic matter, whereas a well-amended garden soil
may contain 30% or more.

 Adding organic matter is one of the best things you can do to your soil. In addition to being a reservoir of nutrients,
organic matter improves the soil structure
 Live organic matter includes earthworms, insects, microorganisms, and plant roots.
 Earthworms and plant roots perform a valuable service by creating tunnels for air and water to flow through the soil.
 An invisible world of soil bacteria, fungi, and algae is even more crucial. These microorganisms decompose organic
matter and contribute to the chemical reactions that allow plants to absorb nutrients.
3. Water
 Soil water enables plants to absorb minerals by first dissolving them. Water is also needed for the physiological and
chemical processes of plant growth.

 Water is so strongly attracted to small spaces, or pores, in the soil that it moves from large spaces to smaller ones, even
if the movement is upward or sideways (How Water Moves in Soil).

 That is why a soil with mostly small pores, such as clay, holds water so well. An ideal soil has a mix of large and small
spaces, so that it holds both water and air.

4. Air
 Soil with a loose surface and large pores permits air to diffuse easily into it. Entry is limited if the soil is crusted over or
compacted.
 Soil air is more humid than the air that humans breathe, and it has a higher carbon dioxide content. The oxygen it
contains is vital to the root growth of plants.
 In fact, roots grow only where oxygen is present in the soil.
 Roots and decaying organic matter give off carbon dioxide, which diffuses to the surface and dissipates in the air as
oxygen diffuses to the depths of the soil.
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Minerals and organic matter are key components of soil, significantly influencing its structure and fertility.
Interactions between Minerals and Organic Matter
 The relationship between minerals and organic matter is vital for soil fertility.
 Organic matter binds with minerals, particularly clay particles, to form stable aggregates that enhance soil structure.
 The presence of organic matter improves the soil’s ability to retain water and nutrients, while minerals contribute to the
long-term nutrient supply.
 This balance between the mineral and organic components of soil is crucial for maintaining soil health, promoting plant
growth, and fostering a healthy soil ecosystem

Minerals:
Minerals are crystalline solids. Most are naturally occurring and inorganically formed. Individual minerals (“species”) are
identified and distinguished from one another based on their chemical composition and atomic framework.
 Derived from weathered rock, form the bulk of soil and determine its texture (sand, silt, or clay).
 Soil minerals serve as both sources and sinks of essential plant nutrients.
 They provide essential nutrients like calcium, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus, which are vital for plant growth.
 Soil is a major source of nutrients needed by plants for growth.
 The three main nutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Together they make up the trio known as
NPK.
 Other important nutrients are calcium, magnesium and sulfur.

Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K) are three essential soil minerals, often referred to as primary
macronutrients, critical for plant growth and soil health.

These nutrients are required in large amounts, and their availability in the soil can significantly influence plant
development and crop yields.

Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are key macronutrients that support plant growth, productivity, and overall soil
health.

A)Nitrogen (N)
 Nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients for plant growth.

 It is a major component of chlorophyll, the compound plants use for photosynthesis, and is also an essential part of
amino acids, the building blocks of proteins.

 Nitrogen is crucial for vegetative growth, and plants with sufficient nitrogen tend to have vigorous, green foliage.

 However, nitrogen is highly mobile in the soil, easily leaching away with water, which can lead to deficiencies.

 To address this, nitrogen is often replenished through fertilizers or organic matter like compost​

B) Phosphorus (P)
 Phosphorus is essential for energy transfer and storage within plants, playing a key role in processes like photosynthesis,
respiration, and nutrient transport.

 It is also a vital part of DNA, RNA, and ATP, the molecule that provides energy for all cellular functions.

 In soil, phosphorus availability is often limited due to its tendency to bind with other minerals, making it less accessible
to plants.

 Phosphorus deficiency typically manifests in stunted growth and poor root development​
C)Potassium (K)

 Their management through soil amendments and fertilizers is essential for sustainable agriculture.

 Potassium helps regulate various physiological processes in plants, including water uptake, enzyme activation, and the
synthesis of proteins and carbohydrates.

 It enhances drought resistance, improves disease resistance, and strengthens plant cell walls.

 Unlike nitrogen, potassium does not form part of the plant's structure, but its role in regulating metabolic activities is
vital for overall plant health.

 Potassium is less mobile in the soil compared to nitrogen, and deficiency can result in reduced crop quality, weak stems,
and poor disease resistance​

Organic matter

Organic matter is a crucial component of soil, consisting of plant and animal materials in various stages of
decomposition. It represents about 5% of soil composition, yet its impact on soil health and fertility is significant.

Functions of organic matter

1. Improving Soil Structure

Organic matter promotes the formation of soil aggregates, which bind soil particles together. This improves the soil's
structure, increases porosity, and enhances aeration, enabling plant roots to penetrate more easily. Good soil structure also
reduces erosion by stabilizing the soil surface
2. Water Retention and Drainage
Acting like a sponge, organic matter improves the soil's ability to retain water. It increases water-holding capacity,
particularly in sandy soils, while also improving drainage in clay soils. This balance helps crops survive during periods of
drought or heavy rainfall​
3. Nutrient Reservoir
Organic matter is a key source of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. As it decomposes, it releases these
nutrients slowly into the soil, ensuring a continuous supply for plant growth. This helps reduce the need for synthetic
fertilizers and maintains long-term soil fertility
4. Enhancing Microbial Activity
Decomposing organic matter serves as food for soil microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi. These organisms break
down organic materials into humus, a stable form of organic matter. Microbial activity is crucial for nutrient cycling,
improving soil health, and supporting plant growth
5. Carbon Sequestration
Organic matter contributes to carbon sequestration by storing carbon in the soil. This process reduces the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, helping mitigate climate change. Soils rich in organic matter are often more effective at
sequestering carbon​
6. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Organic matter enhances the soil’s cation exchange capacity, which is the soil's ability to hold onto essential nutrients
(such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium) and make them available to plants. This improves nutrient availability and
soil fertility

7.Importance in Agriculture
In agriculture, adding organic matter through practices like composting, cover cropping, or using animal manure helps
restore soil fertility, improve water retention, and boost crop yields. It also enhances carbon sequestration, playing a role in
climate change mitigation by storing carbon in the soil.
Summary

Soil Organic Matter

In conclusion, organic matter is vital for maintaining healthy, productive soils, influencing everything from nutrient
cycling to water management and microbial activity. Proper management of organic matter is key to sustainable farming
and environmental protection