PARTVI EVOLUTION ANq DIVERSITY

27
EVOLUTION OF LIFE

~~~G-tl_C~?LA_l)J·*~l~}~. ~~\.ctu --- >

CHAPTER REVIEW

The fossil record and biogeography, as well as compar- states that the gene pool frequencies arrive at an equilibrium
ative anatomy, development, and biochemistry, all give that is maintained generation after generation unless dis-
evidence of evolution. The fossil record gives us the his- rupted by mutations, genetic drift, gene now, non-
tory of life in general and allows us to trace the descent random mating, or natural selection. Any change from
of a particular group. Biogeography shows that the dis- the initial allele frequencies in the gene pool of a popu-
tribution of organisms on Earth is explainable by as- lation signifies that evolution has occurred.
suming organisms evolved in one locale. Comparing the Speciation is the origin of species. This usually re-
anatomy and the development of organisms reveals a quires geographic isolation, followed by reproductive
sameness among those that are closely related. All or- isolation.
ganisms have certain biochemical molecules in common, The evolution of several species of finches on the
and. similarities indicate the degree of relatedness. Galapagos Islands is an ·example of adaptive radiation,
A chemical evolution is believed to have resulted in because each species has a different way of life, but all
the first cell(s). Inorganic chemicals, probably derived from species came from one common ancestor.
the primitive atmosphere, reacted to form small organic Currently, there are two hypotheses about the pace
molecules. These reactions occurred in the ocean, either of speciation. Traditionalists support phyletic gradualism--

t
on the surface or in the region of hydrothermal vents, slow, steady change leading to speciation. A new model,
deep within the ocean. punctuated equilibrium, says that a long period of sta-
Next, macromolecules evolved and interacted. sis is interrupted by speciation.
The RNA-first hypothesis is supported by the discovery Classification involves the assignment of species to
of ribozymes, RNA enzymes. The protein-first hypoth- a hierarchy of categories: species, genus, family, order,
esis is supported by the observation that amino acids class, phylum, kingdom, and in this text, domain. Each
polymerize abiotically when exposed to dry heat. The higher category is more inclusive; members of the same
Cairns-Smith hypothesis suggests that macromolecules domain share general characteristics, and members of
could have originated in clay. The protocell must have the same species share quite specific characteristics. The
been a beterotrophic fermenter living on the pre-formed five-kingdom system of classification recognizes these
organic molecules in the organic soup. Eventually, the DNA kingdoms: Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Protista (e.g., algae,
-> RNA-> protein self-replicating system evolved, protozoans), and Monera (the bacteria). The three-domain
and a true cell came into being. system used by this text is based on molecular data and
Evolution is described as a process that involves a recognizes three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eu-
change in gene frequencies within the gene pool of a sex- karya. The domain Eukarya contains the kingdoms Pro-
ually reproducing population. The Hardy-Weinberg law tista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.

STUDY QUESTIONS

Study the text section by section. Answer the study questions so that you can fulfill the learning objectives for each
section .

• 246
 The learning objective for this section is:
• Give examples of the evidence for common descent.

In questions 1-5, fill in the blanks. j

d isk about• 4.5 billion years old, life
1. Earth . evolved
. in the form ofprokaryotes
. about a. • '? S
b'lJ' years ago, •
P!111011 W'
~n ~u. aryo~1c cells ~?e about 2.1 billion years ago. Evolution explains the unity and the ~ ~ p f life.
J.11 ~~vu:g thmgs sha~'.:Jf ~ : a~ e~fundamental chara~teristics because they_ descended from a common
·t • <( \ , are the rem~ns and traces of past life and are found embedded in
e. . ::£.d- ' " , r,-,- rock. f., r,..\r ~"\a \o c.~t> :.> are biologists who discover and study the fossil
re1 ~d/ R.Jt r<'~( cr;o-- is a transitiohll link between reptiles and birds. Fossils allow us io deduce
~h ,J ~•• preceded ' mphibians, which preceded reptiles, which preceded both birds and
1. l'\-,e,. ., r-.c-l'l . J.
2. Fossils can be dated by the•· ,c\c,\-,...,<., / dating method, which determines the relative order of fossils and
strata.based on th_eir position, or by the b ..J".'9sollt'\-f / d11ting method, whic~ relies on radioactive dating
techniques to assign an actual date to a fossil. Mass c.·J e{-•h"~1ovS are times when a large percentage of
species becomes extinct within a relatively short period of time. The Cretaceous extinction of the dinosaurs
r jy be due to an asteroid falling to Earth. ·
3. •· t'.ll
J e.o re- ~\u;.. evidence for evolution refers to the stud~f the distribution of plants and animals
throughout he wo d. Such istributions are consistent with~-e hyp*es~at related forms evolve in one
locale and then b. S t out into other regions. Conlin ntal c. d.rrfl is a hypothesis that states
that the continents are not fixed but change over time. The c•-4"'~ \1r biological diversity of
today's world is the result of isolated evolution on separate contine ts.
4. A common dr/s ent hypothesis offers a plausible explanation for . : rv, ~'.ecJ similarities among .
organisms. b./ tv11\ 11 , . ,,,-> structures are similar in structure (not function) becau_se they were inherited
from a co n ances'tbr, such as the forelimbs in birds, whales, horses, and monkeys. The wirig of a bird and
insect are c. Of\, Ir M ' ½ ~ structures; tr ey are all adaptations for flying that are structurally unrelated.
Anatomical featurek-that are fully developed in, one group of organisms but are reduced and may have no
function in similar groups 81\e called d. ·J \- \ r. \ o-\ structures.; uring embryological development; \
all vertebrates have a c. ~,t ,,,r,r\,,
. ! and t,ltired pharyngeal pouch s. In fishes, the pouches develop
9
into gills, but in humans, other stru'c'tures are foryed. Organisms share~a v"·,\ -1 of plah when they are
closely related because of common descent. j. .
5. Almost all living organisms use the same basic· · b•,O()'eA c,-.) mo ecules, i~cluding DNA, ATP, amino
acid sequences of proteins, etc. Their similarity can be explained by b. clt /, r f , '\ from a common
ancestor.
In questions 6-10, match each of the statements to the type of evidence supporting evolution.
-a._ The succession of life-forms is revealed through preserved remnants.
'b,_ Organisms have similarities and differences in structures.
Closely related organisms have high correlations in DNA base sequences.
~·Organisms arise and disperse from place of origin.
j 'b.., In their early phases of development, vertebrates show a unity of plan.
6. biogeography

j 7.
8.
9.
10. -
comparative anatomy
comparative biochemistry
comparative embryology
fossil record

;1 The' learning objectives for this section are:

i • Describe the chemical evolution that may have led to the origin of the protocell.
·/ • Explain different hypotheses for the origin of life.
i
j 247

f
,J
1'
11. In the top half of the followin g dia gram, PIace these labels next to the correct arrows:
cooling
energy capture polymerization
Then place these labels in the boxes·
inorganic chemicals ~acromoiecules plasma membrane . primitive earth · small organic molecules

protocell

1
°B'6, cell I
0
0

iii tf7
photosynthesis cellular resplraUon

12. A student decides to reproduce Miller's exper~ ent, so she assembles all the necessary equipment and adds
the proper gases. What is still needed and why? t --"ff[J( SOvfCl, 1 1:b,7 cN " ,A re.,..t t

13. A student decides to reproj ce Fox's experiment, so he puts a solution of amino acids on heated rocks. What
\'""II """"' md why1 ,1,,1 s,,\ ,~ t cJ,\r, , w/, ~H• n <I\, ''J ,
14:J.; tis the evidence for suggesting that it wa an "RNA world" some 4 billion years ago? _ _ _ _ _ __
· ,-ti~ ·°" crrJL h :-L·
IS . indicate whether these statements about the protocell are true (T) or false (F).
· . _L carried on cellular respiration
b. .L was a heterotrophic fermenter
c. - ~- contained a self-replieation system that allowed it to reproduce

1 d. _1__ had a plasma membrane ·

6. JTo. be a true cell, which statement, labeled as false in question 15, m~st fulfilled?•·
label self replication system to the diagram in question 11. b. @rdh r,<J] .(.
11 ) 1. Why does it seem lo~icitl that the protocell was heterotrophic?'ll-e
~f
rxt.,..~ "::In
et1l
c,ol J
c..\~'A.dd the

/\l4'r\M
-Jo.Why would the protocell have been a fermenter? o\.-, O:~~\ttt bn-J t1)E'" ·
l o 0
· 18. What is the proper sequence of events in the evolution of a self-replication system, assuming that it was an
"RNA world" at the time? Indicate by letters. _CA...;...;.t\..:..,i..:..J_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

a. replication of RNA
b . .reverse transcription of DNA
c. proteins
d. DNA proteins

248
I
th's atmosphere to describe it as either:
19. Place the appropriate letter next to eac h statement about the Ear
P"J::l?rimitive C-<:urrent
a. ....lL_ It exists without the ozone shield. .· s
b. _J2__ It favors the polymerization of orgamc mo1ecu1e ·
c. _jl_ It is a reducing atmosphere.
d. 4 It is an oxidizing atmosphere.
e. ._&_ It tends to break down organic molecules.
Ill
f. -L. Oxygen-producing autotrophs made it.

_ MJJs:aMWN&iiiA~
1 ·· ' ,f." ......... ,. , .

The learning objectives for this section are: . h from one generation to the next.

• Explain Darwin's mechanisms for natural selection, which resu till a a

t
• Explain why allele frequencies in the gene pool ?fa po~ulation _ang; ptation to the environment.
. \

20. When the gene frequency within the gene pool of a population . c~ang~s:illeles then a.inf\C\ vr.,_\ litreproducing
a sexually ~ r.,l.10':'.l is said to
have occurred. The Hardy-Weinberg law states that the freque.n cies O •
1
b ulb.
pop. lation J,,,y,v-
f..l wi,1.1 remain the same in each succeeding generation
e. -a
R
~:stloid~g
La!' j rr
~ =a~s;~~ei rjl-
""" j•f~;j":c~, ===================
~:- =1Tu~fr:F7·~~: f. i ,c, ",rrrr-1c- 1
21. The Hardy-Wemberg · law uses the bmom1al
· · · p2 + 2 pq + q2 tO calculate .the genotypic
· expression . and
d
•· Q\ \1 C frequenci~ of a population. p2 represents the iie11otype in a population that IS th e d
b. k,,0 ·14n.,... dp"":"""' phenot,~j>e, 2pq represents the c. l,r {c, m /QOv- f phenotype, an q2
represems the d, ho,v7',r,c, ·, . rcru,: phenotype.

22. Assuming a Hardy-W; inberg equilibrium, 1% of a population of fruit flies had the homozygous recessive trait
of vestigial wings (v):Answer the following questions . \ ~7
a. What is the frequency of the recessive allele v? (J · - '
b. What is the frequency of the dominant normal allele V? 0 ,cl(\>\ 'I : ')

Fill in this Punnett square using the allele frequencies you calculated to determine the genotypic frequencies '
in the offspring of this population:

~ v v
.JL v c. (1 ." I .-.,. d. ~,.'•·-~
V e. r1 r\h ,. I.
'\ _() \ C r,
.,
g. The percentage of homozygous dominant (normal) fruit flies is _ ~_t_1_· _ _
h. The percentage of heterozygous domlnant (normal) fruit flies is - -'-
' _, ...;·'- - -
i. The percentage of homozygous recessive (vestigial) fruit flies is - - -'- ' - - -
23. Label the statements with the correct agents of evolutionary change:
gene flow genetic drift mutations natural selection nonrandom mating
a.
b.
N\,.t,.\.,,.., 1 Investigators have discovered that multiple alleles are common in a population.
u
CP"L Ql0~
· ,
Populations are subject to new alleles entering by the migration of organisms
between populations. .
c. ~ O,' (r,,JO"" rl'a.-l,.;,5 Female birds of paradise choose mates with the most splendid feathers.
d. 1
1f2e~~c. D, \~ Investigators discovered that if they randomly picked out a few flies from each
\1 generation to start the next generation, gene poolfrequency changes appeared.
e. \,~)" , ._I SeJ( d 0" Giraffes with longer necks get a larger share of resources and tend to have more
offspring .

249
 - • .
24. Match these descriptions to one of th -
used more than once.) e agents of evolutionary change listed in question 23. (Some agents are

a. \) ,\ ~\
l) ,S,\- Dwarfism is common among the Amish of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.
b.

r
D,\\\ Cheetahs are homozygous for a larger proportion of their genes.
c. ---'=----- This agent of change tends to make the members of a population dissimilar to one
another.
d. P lo---J
- - - - - - - - This agent of change tends to make the members of a population similar to one
u , ,. another.
e. I
l""v\ ,-ll-,
_ .
Certam members of a population are more fit than other members.
f. 1"-' • "',J ':::c_lc1, "'Bacteria and insects become resistant to agents that formerly killed them.

25. Natural selection can now be understood in terms of genetics. Many of the variations that exist between
me_~ f; r\ o\ a population are due to differences in •~ ~· . Some of these genotypes result in
b. I "'t1 bl'- that are better adl\Pted to the environment. Individuals that are better adapted to the
environment reproduce to a(n) c. V-~~) C\ extent, and therefore, these genotypes and phenotypes
become more prevalent in the population.
26. Match the observations to the correct type of natural selection at work:
directional selection disruptive selection stabilizing selection
a. s\-c,\:i 1\ \ 2 \ ''!\ Trees in a windy area tend to remain the same size each year.
b. \), ( f' ,.\cr, '~ The brain size of hominids steadily increases.
_\_):;_:_;
, ~:..i'...:'"-'
'Q •~_...c_ __ The same species of moths tends to have.blue stripes in open areas and orange
,,_\_,_-:..:
c. 1 • stripes in forested areas.

27 . Match·the types of natural selection listed in question 26 with the following diagrams:

(~cb\.c a.
£ 1·
Q,,1Jlo-"c5\

In question 28, fill in the blanks.

Variati" maintained in a population despite directional and stabilizing selection when members have
28 .
•· ,. alleles for every trait. That's because the b. f e CL !.!. l'l't, allele is hidden by the
c. Joi"\""'cJt- ailele .'. In instances such as sickle-_cell disease, in which the d. he-4v,-i-t)",,.s genotype is
more fit, the two e. l'Q J',s,_ , rn v; genotypes are maintained due to the reproductive process, which involves
J
meiosis and fertilization .

,~w;,-~@~W~~Mf#i¥Wii¥J-~'Mffiil@if~~1
The learning objectives for this section are:
Distinguish between premating and postmating isolating mechanisms and explain the process of speciation.
Relate adaptive radiation to the occurrence of many related species.
Contrast the concepts of phyletic gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.

2S0
 29. Bu8h b b " d"ff t species from those living
lo _a ies (a type of primate) living higher in the tropical canopy are a 1 eren
wer m the canopy. Answer the following yes or no : \~
a. Would the two species of bush babies reproduce with each other? _ _!:l____
_Y
. . .c~,:5,=<------
b. Would a premating mechanism s~parate the two species of b1sh babies?
c. Could the two species of bush babies eat the same food? _i_e
~ c~---
d. Would thleltwo species of bush babies have to look dissimilar enough to be diS t inguishable by th e naked
eye? ND
30. Match the numbered statements to the letters in the diagram.
1 A newly formed barrier comes between the populations.
2 The barrier is removed.
3 A species contains one population or several interbreeding populations.
4 Reproductive isolation has occurred.
5 Two species now exist.
6 Divergent evolution occurs.
7 Allopatric speciation occurs .

•••
•••
••••
•• 6
......
species 1

••••••• ••••
\

• •
environment 2 ,
Individual of ·
species 2

e. ~
• ••• • •
31. Label each of these statements with pre for premating isolating mechanism or post for postmating isolating
meCNU\~m.
a. \l-n·1 Zygote mortality exists.
b. Species reproduce at different times.
'i
c. _fil_ Species have genitalia that are unsuitable to each other.
\
l . . ..
32.
(}\}£( e_

1
!'
2 51