Research Methodology

Dr. S. K. Basu
PG & Research Department of commerce
St. Xavier’s college (autonomous)
kolkata

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What is Research?

 Research can be defined as the

search for knowledge or as any
systematic investigation to
establish facts.

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Characteristics of Research

 systematic
 logical
 empirical
 reductive
 replicable

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Types of Research

 Pure and Applied Research

 Exploratory or Formulative Research

 Descriptive Research

 Diagnostic Study

 Evaluation Studies

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Types of Research
 Action Research

 Experimental Research

 Analytical study or statistical Method

 Historical Research

 Surveys

 Case Study

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Pure and Applied Research
Pure
 It is the study of search of knowledge.

Examples:
 1. Investigating the effects of a new gene on
cell development
 2. Examining the evolution of a specific spices
over millions of years
 Pure research is also known as basic or
fundamental research
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Pure and Applied Research

Applied
 It is the study of finding solution to a problem.

Examples:
1. Developing a new medication to treat a specific disease
2. Investing the effectiveness of a new teaching methods in the
class rooms.
3. Developing a new vaccine tp prevent a specific infectious
disease.

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Purpose of Pure and Applied Research

Pure

 It can contribute new facts

 It can put theory to the rest

 It may aid in conceptual clarification

 It may integrate previously existing theories.

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Purpose of Pure and Applied
Research

Applied

 Itoffers solutions to many

practical problems.

 To find the critical factors in a

practical problem.
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Exploratory (Formulative Research)

Concept

Exploratory research is preliminary study of

an unfamiliar problem about which the
researcher has little or no knowledge.
Examples:
1. Investigating the potential of a new market
for a product or service.
2. Identifying the causes of a complex social
issue, such as homelessness or poverty
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Purpose of Exploratory or
Formulative Research
 To Generate new ideas

 To increase the researcher’s familiarity with

the problem

 To make a precise formulation of the problem

 To gather information for clarifying concepts

 To determine whether it is feasible to

attempt the study.
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Descriptive Research
 Concept
Descriptive study is a fact- finding investigation
with adequate interpretation.

 Examples
1. Conducting a census to describe the
population’s characteristics such as age, gender
and income
2. Studying the characteristics of a specific
industry, such as market size, growth rate and
trends.

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Descriptive Research
Features

 It is the simplest type of research.

 It is designed to gather descriptive information and provides information

for formulating more sophisticated studies.

 Data are collected using observation, interview and mail questionnaire.

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Purpose of Descriptive
Research
 It can focus directly on a theoretical point.

 It can highlight important methodological

aspects of data collection and interpretation.

 It obtained in a research may be useful for

prediction about areas of social life outside in
the boundaries of research.

 Descriptive studies are valuable in providing

facts needed for planning social action
programmes.
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Diagnostic Study

 It is directed towards discovering what

is happening, why is it happening and
what can be done about.
 It aims at identifying the causes of a
problem and the possible solutions for
it.

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Diagnostic Study
Examples:

1. Investigating the causes of a decline in sales

revenue for a company

2. Studying the factors associated with a higher risk of

heart disease in a specific population.

3. Examining the causes of a specific environmental

issue, such as water pollution.

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Purpose of Diagnostic Study

 Thisstudy may also be concerned

with discovering and testing
whether certain variables are
associated.

 Todetermine the frequency with

which something occurs or with
which it is associated with
something else.
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Evaluation Studies
 It is one type of applied research.

 It is made for assessing the effectiveness of

social or economic programmes implemented or
for assessing the impact of developmental
projects area.

 The determination of the results attained by

some activity designed to accomplish some
valued goal or objectives.
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Purpose of Evaluation Studies

 It is 1919directed to assess or appraise the

quality and quantity of an activity and its
performance.

 To specify its attributes and conditions required

for its success.

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Action Research

 Researcher attempts to study action.

 Action research is a reflective process of progressive

problem solving led by individuals working with others
in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to
improve the way they address issues and solve
problems.

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Action Research
Examples:
 A marketing team testing the impact of a new social media campaign
on customer engagement.

 A government agency implementing a new policy to address a social

issue and assessing its effectiveness.

 A teacher implementing a new instructional strategy to improve

student engagement and measuring its effectiveness.

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Purpose of Action Research
 A baseline survey of the pre-action situation

 A feasibility study of the proposed action

programme

 Planning and launching the programme

 Concurrent evaluation of the programme

 Making modifications and changes in the

programme.
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Experimental Research

 Experimental research is commonly used in

sciences such as sociology and psychology,
physics, chemistry, biology and medicine and so
on.

 It is a systematic and scientific approach to

research in which the researcher manipulates one
or more variables, and controls and measures
any change in other variables.

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Purpose of Experimental
Research
 Experiments are conducted to be able to predict
phenomenon.

 To maintain control over all factors.

 A blueprint of the procedure that enables the

researcher to test his hypothesis.
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Experimental Research
Examples:

 Investigating the effect of a new fertilizer on crop yield by randomly

assigning plots

 Evaluating the impact of a new safety protocol on accident raes by

randomly assigning workers

 Examining the impact of a new exercise programme on weight loss by

randomly assigning participants.

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Analytical Study

 Analytical study is a system of procedures and

techniques of analysis applied to quantitative data.

 A system of mathematical models or statistical

techniques applicable to numerical data.

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Analytical Study
Examples:

 1. Examining the impact of anew economic policy on GDP growth

by analysing time series data.

 2. Analysing customer purchase behaviour to identify pattern and

preferences.

 3. Examining the relationship between social media usage and

mental health outcomes by analysing survey data.

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Purpose of Analytical Study

 It aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and

interpreting relationship.

 It concentrates on analyzing data in depth and

examining relationships from various angles by
bringing in as many relevant variables as possible in
the analysis plan.

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Historical Research

 The systematic collection and evaluation of

data related to past occurrences in order to
describe causes, effects, and trends of those
events that may help explain present events and
anticipate future events.

 Data is often archival-including newspaper

clippings, photographs, etc.- and may include
interviews.

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Purpose of Historical
Research
 To draw explanations and generalizations from the past
trends in order to understand the present and to anticipate
the future.

 It enables us to grasp our relationship with the past and

to plan more intelligently for the future.

 The past contains the key to the present and the past and
the present influences the future.

 It helps us in visualizing the society as a dynamic

organism and its structures and functions as evolving,
steadily growing and undergoing change and
transformation.
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Survey Research
 Survey research is one of the most important
areas of measurement in applied social
research. The broad area of survey research
encompasses any measurement procedures that
involve asking questions of respondents.

 A "survey" can be anything form a short paper-

and-pencil feedback form to an intensive one-
on-one in-depth interview.

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Purpose of Survey Research
 It is always conducted in a natural setting.

 It seeks responses directly from the

respondents.

 It can cover a very large population.

 A survey may involve an extensive study or an

intensive study.

 A survey covers a definite geographical area,

a city, district, state
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Case Study

 A case study is a research methodology

common in social science.

 It is based on an in-depth investigation

of a single individual, group, or event to
explore causation in order to find
underlying principles

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Purpose of Case Study

 To examine limited number of variables

 Case study methods involve an in-depth,

longitudinal examination of a single
instance or event.

 It provides a systematic way of looking

at events, collecting data, analyzing
information, and reporting the results.
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Field research

 Field research has traditionally been thought different from

methods of research conducted in a laboratory or academic
setting.

Purpose
 The advantages of field research are that people are closer to
real world conditions and design the research in the best way to
discover the particular information required.

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Research Design: Concept

 The term “research design” means

‘drawing for research’.

 It is a systematic planning of
conducting research.

 It aims to achieve goals of the

research.
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Research Design: Definition
 ‘As the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine the
relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure’.

 ‘A master plan, specifying the methods

and procedures for collecting and
analyzing the needed information’

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Research Design: Need and
Purpose
 It helps in smooth sailing of the research process.

 It saves the money, manpower and materials.

 It helps the researchers for advance planning and

avoids duplication.

 It helps to modify the research if any difficulties.

 It gives reality to research.

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Research Design Process

 Selection of research topic/problem

 Framing research design

 Framing sampling design

 Collection of data

 Data analysis/editing, coding, processing and preservation

 Writing research reports

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Characteristics of Good Research
Design

 Theory-Grounded

 Environment

 Feasibility of Implementation

 Redundancy

 Efficient.
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Characteristics of Good
Research Design
 It should be flexible

 It should be economical

 It should be unbiased

 It should fulfill the objectives of the research

 It should be more appropriate to all the aspects of

research.
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Characteristics of Good
Research Design
 It should guide him to achieve correct
results.

 It provides scientific base for his

research.

 It also should facilitate to complete the

research work within the stipulated time.

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Functions of Research Design

 It provides a blueprint of research.

 It limits (dictates) the boundaries of the

research activities.

 It enables investigation to anticipate

potential problems

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Components of Research
Design
 Title of the investigation

 Purpose of the study

 Review of related literature

 Statement of the problem

 Scope of the investigation

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Components of Research
Design
 Objectives of the study

 Variables

 Hypothesis

 Selection of sample

 Data Collection

 Analysis of data

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Types of Research Design

 Experimental Designs

 Non- Experimental Designs

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Experimental Designs

 There are two types:

> Quasi-experimental

> Experimental

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Non-Experimental Design

 Case study designs/method.

 Content analysis.

 Ethnography.

 Focus groups.

 Network analysis and sociometry.

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Hypotheses
 The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine
whether there is enough statistical evidence in favor
of a certain belief about a parameter.

 An hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative

explanation or postulate by the researcher of what
the researcher considers the outcome of an
investigation will be. It is an informed/educated
guess.

 It indicates the expectations of the researcher

regarding certain variables. It is the most specific
way in which an answer to a problem can be stated.
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Hypothesis: Definition

 A tentative statement about a

population parameter that might
be true or wrong.

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The Difference Between An Hypothesis and A Problem

 Both an hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body of

knowledge which supports or refutes an existing theory.

 An hypothesis differs from a problem.

 A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves as

the basis or origin from which an hypothesis is derived.

 An hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem.

 A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas an

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hypothesis can be tested and verified.

When is an Hypothesis Formulated

 An hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been

stated and the literature study has been concluded.

 It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of

the theoretical and empirical background to the
problem.

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Purpose and Functions of Hypothesis

 It offers explanations for the relationships between those

variables that can be empirically tested.

 It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient

background knowledge to enable him/her to make
suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge.

 It gives direction to an investigation.

 It structures the next phase in the investigation and

therefore furnishes continuity to the examination of the
problem.
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Characteristics of Hypothesis

 It should have elucidating power.

 It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the

phenomenon.

 It must be verifiable.

 It must be formulated in simple, understandable terms.

 It should corresponds with existing knowledge.

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 Types of Hypotheses
1. Descriptive Hypotheses:

These are propositions that describe the characteristics ( such as size, form or
distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organization etc.
Example:
The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of commerce
graduates. The educational system is not oriented to human resource needs of a country.

2. Relational Hypotheses:
These are propositions which describe the relationship between tow variables.
Example:
Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation
Upper – class people have fewer children than lower class people.

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Types of Hypotheses
3. Causal Hypotheses

 It states that the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes or leads to an
effect on another variable.
 The first variable is called the independent variable and the latter the dependent
variable.
 When dealing with causal relationships between variables the researcher must
consider the direction in which such relationship flow e. g which is cause and which
is effect.

4. Working Hypotheses

 While planning the study of a problem, hypotheses are formed.

 Initially they may not be very specific. In such cases, they are referred to as ‘
working hypotheses’ which are subject to modification as the investigation proceeds.

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Types of Hypotheses
5. Null Hypotheses
This hypotheses are formulated for testing statistical significance, since,
this form is a convenient approach to statistical analysis. As the test
would nullify the null hypotheses.
Example: There is a relationship between a family’s income and expenditure on
recreation, a null hypothesis may state: There is no relationship between families
income level and expenditure on recreation.

6. Statistical Hypotheses
These are statements about a statistical population. These are derived from a
sample. These are quantitative in nature in that they are numerically measurable
Example: Group A is older than B’

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Types of Hypotheses
7. Common Sense Hypotheses

It state the existence of empirical uniformities perceived through day to day

observations.
Example: “ Shop-assistants in small shops lack motivation”

8. Complex Hypotheses

These aim at testing the existence of logically derived relationships between empirical uniformities.
Example: In the early stage human ecology described empirical uniformities in the distribution of land
values, industrial concentrations, types of business and other phenomena.

9. Analytical Hypotheses

It concerned with the relationship of analytic variables. These hypotheses occur at the highest level of
abstraction. These specify relationship between changes in one property and changes in another.
Example: The study of human fertility might show empirical regularities by wealth, education, region,
and religion.
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Characteristics of a Good
Hypotheses

 Conceptual Clarity
 Specificity

 Testability

 Availability of Techniques
 Theoretical relevance
 Consistency

 Objectivity

 Simplicity
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Sources of Hypotheses

 Theory
 Observation
 Analogies
 Intuition and personal experience
 Findings of studies
 State of Knowledge
 Culture
 Continuity of Research
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