Priyadarshini College of Engineering

Nagpur
Department of Computer
Technology

Topic Name : Nuclear Energy

Subject : Environmental Science
Name : Sushmita S. Kannam
2nd year/4th semester
Section : ‘A’ Roll no. 0130
Teacher incharge : Ms. Sudhu
Ramnath
Index

 Introduction
 History
 Types
 Importance
 Advantages
 Disadvantages
 Environmental impact
 Human impact
 Controls
 Challenges
 Case studies
 Future outlook
 References
Introduction :
Nuclear energy is the energy in the nucleus, or core, of
an atom. Atoms are tiny units that make up all matter in
the universe, and energy is what holds the nucleus together. There
is a huge amount of energy in an atom's dense nucleus. In fact, the
power that holds the nucleus together is officially called the
"strong force."

Nuclear energy can be used to create electricity, but it must first be

released from the atom. In the process of nuclear
fission, atoms are split to release that energy.

A nuclear reactor, or power plant, is a series of machines that can

control nuclear fission to produce electricity. The fuel that nuclear
reactors use to produce nuclear fission is pellets of the
element uranium. In a nuclear reactor, atoms of uranium are
forced to break apart. As they split, the atoms release
tiny particles called fission products. Fission products cause
other uranium atoms to split, starting a chain reaction. The energy
released from this chain reaction creates heat.

The heat created by nuclear fission warms the reactor's cooling

agent. A cooling agent is usually water, but some nuclear
reactors use liquid metal or molten salt. The cooling agent, heated
by nuclear fission, produces steam. The steam turns turbines, or
wheels turned by a flowing current. The turbines drive generators,
or engines that create electricity.

Rods of material called nuclear poison can adjust how

much electricity is produced. Nuclear poisons are materials, such
as a type of the element xenon, that absorb some of the fission
products created by nuclear fission. The more rods of nuclear
poison that are present during the chain reaction, the slower and
more controlled the reaction will be. Removing the rods will allow a
stronger chain reaction and create more electricity.

As of 2011, about 15 percent of the

world's electricity is generated by nuclear power plants. The United
States has more than 100 reactors, although it creates most of
its electricity from fossil fuels and hydroelectric energy. Nations
such as Lithuania, France, and Slovakia create almost all of
their electricity from nuclear power plants.

History :
The discovery of nuclear fission occurred in 1938 following over
four decades of work on the science of radioactivity and the
elaboration of new nuclear physics that described the components
of atoms. Soon after the discovery of the fission process, it was
realized that a fissioning nucleus can induce further nucleus
fissions, thus inducing a self-sustaining chain reaction. Once this
was experimentally confirmed in 1939, scientists in many
countries petitioned their governments for support of nuclear
fission research, just on the cusp of World War II, for the
development of a nuclear weapon.
In the United States, these research efforts led to the creation of
the first man-made nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1, which
achieved criticality on December 2, 1942. The reactor's
development was part of the Manhattan Project, the Allied effort to
create atomic bombs during World War II. It led to the building of
larger single-purpose production reactors for the production
of weapons-grade plutonium for use in the first nuclear weapons.
The United States tested the first nuclear weapon in July 1945,
the Trinity test, with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki taking place one month later.

The launching ceremony of

the USS Nautilus January 1954. In 1958 it would become the first
vessel to reach reach the North pole. t
 The Calder Hall nuclear power
station in the United Kingdom, the world's first commercial nuclear
power station.
Despite the military nature of the first nuclear devices, the 1940s
and 1950s were characterized by strong optimism for the potential
of nuclear power to provide cheap and endless energy. Electricity
was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December
20, 1951, at the EBR-I experimental station near Arco, Idaho, which

initially produced about 100 kW. The

first light bulbs ever lit by electricity generated by nuclear power
at EBR-1 at Argonne National Laboratory-West, December 20, 1951.
In 1953, American President Dwight Eisenhower gave his "Atoms
for Peace" speech at the United Nations, emphasizing the need to
develop "peaceful" uses of nuclear power quickly. This was
followed by the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 which allowed rapid
declassification of U.S. reactor technology and encouraged
development by the private sector.

Types of Nuclear Energy :

Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits
into two or more smaller nuclei. The fission process often
produces gamma photons, and releases a very large amount
of energy even by the energetic standards of radioactive decay.
Nuclear fission was discovered on 19 December 1938 in Berlin by
German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann. Physicists Lise
Meitner and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch explained it
theoretically in January 1939. Frisch named the process "fission"
by analogy with biological fission of living cells. In their second
publication on nuclear fission in February 1939, Hahn and
Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional
neutrons during the fission process, opening up the possibility of
a nuclear chain reaction.

For heavy nuclides, it is an exothermic reaction which can release

large amounts of energy both as electromagnetic radiation and
as kinetic energy of the fragments (heating the bulk material where
fission takes place). Like nuclear fusion, for fission to produce
energy, the total binding energy of the resulting elements must be
greater than that of the starting element.
Fission is a form of nuclear transmutation because the resulting
fragments are not the same element as the original parent atom.
The two nuclei produced are most often of comparable but slightly
different sizes, typically with a mass ratio of products of about 3 to
2, for common fissile isotopes. Most fissions are binary fissions
(producing two charged fragments), but occasionally
,three positively charged fragments are produced, in a ternary
fission. The smallest of these fragments in ternary processes
ranges in size from a proton to an argon nucleus.
Apart from fission induced by a neutron, harnessed and exploited
by humans, a natural form of spontaneous radioactive decay (not
requiring a neutron) is also referred to as fission, and occurs
especially in very high-mass-number isotopes.
The unpredictable composition of the products distinguishes
fission from purely quantum tunneling processes such as proton
emission, alpha decay, and cluster decay, which give the same
products each time. Nuclear fission produces energy for nuclear
power and drives the explosion of nuclear weapons. Both uses are
possible because certain substances called nuclear fuels undergo
fission when struck by fission neutrons, and in turn emit neutrons
when they break apart. This makes a self-sustaining nuclear chain
reaction possible, releasing energy at a controlled rate in a nuclear
reactor or at a very rapid, uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon.
The amount of free energy released in the fission of an equivalent
amount of 235 U is a million times more than that released in the
combustion of methane or from hydrogen fuel cells.
The products of nuclear fission, however, are on average far
more radioactive than the heavy elements which are normally
fissioned as fuel, and remain so for significant amounts of time,
giving rise to a nuclear waste problem. However, the seven long-
lived fission products make up only a small fraction of fission
products. Nuclear reprocessing aims to recover usable material
from spent nuclear fuel to both enable uranium (and thorium)
supplies to last longer and to reduce the amount of "waste". The
industry term for a process that fissions all or nearly all actinides
is a "closed fuel cycle".

Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei,

usually deuterium and tritium (hydrogen variants), combine to form
one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic
particles (neutrons or protons). The difference in mass between
the reactants and products is manifested as either the release
or absorption of energy. This difference in mass arises due to the
difference in nuclear binding energy between the atomic nuclei
before and after the reaction. Nuclear fusion is the process that
powers active or main-sequence stars and other high-
magnitude stars, where large amounts of energy are released.
A nuclear fusion process that produces atomic nuclei lighter
than iron-56 or nickel-62 will generally release energy. These
elements have a relatively small mass and a relatively
large binding energy per nucleon. Fusion of nuclei lighter than
these releases energy (an exothermic process), while the fusion of
heavier nuclei results in energy retained by the product nucleons,
and the resulting reaction is endothermic. The opposite is true for
the reverse process, called nuclear fission. Nuclear fusion uses
lighter elements, such as hydrogen and helium, which are in
general more fusible; while the heavier elements, such
as uranium, thorium and plutonium, are more fissionable. The
extreme astrophysical event of a supernova can produce enough
energy to fuse nuclei into elements heavier than iron.
The release of energy with the fusion of light elements is due to
the interplay of two opposing forces: the nuclear force, a
manifestation of the strong interaction, which holds protons and
neutrons tightly together in the atomic nucleus; and the Coulomb
force, which causes positively charged protons in the nucleus to
repel each other.Lighter nuclei (nuclei smaller than iron and nickel)
are sufficiently small and proton-poor to allow the nuclear force to
overcome the Coulomb force. This is because the nucleus is
sufficiently small that all nucleons feel the short-range attractive
force at least as strongly as they feel the infinite-range Coulomb
repulsion. Building up nuclei from lighter nuclei by fusion releases
the extra energy from the net attraction of particles. For larger
nuclei, however, no energy is released, because the nuclear force is
short-range and cannot act across larger nuclei.
Importance :
Nuclear power is an important low-emission source of
electricity, providing about 10% of global electricity
generation. For those countries where it is accepted, it can
complement renewables in reducing power sector
emissions while also contributing to electricity security as
a dispatchable power source. It is also an option for
producing low-emission heat and hydrogen.

More efforts are needed to get nuclear power on track

with the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario. Lifetime
extensions of existing nuclear power plants are one of the
most cost-effective sources of low-emission electricity,
and there have been several positive policy developments
to take full advantage of these opportunities including in
the United States, France and Japan. Additional effort is
needed to accelerate new constructions – 8 GW of new
nuclear capacity was brought online in 2022, but the Net
Zero Scenario calls for over four-times as much annual
deployment by 2030. Support for innovation in nuclear
power, including small modular reactors, will also help
expand the range of low-emission options and widen the
path to net zero power.

Advantages :
CLEAN ENERGY SOURCE

Nuclear is the largest source of clean power in the United

States. It generates nearly 800 billion kilowatt hours of
electricity each year and produces more than half of the
nation’s emissions-free electricity. This avoids more than
470 million metric tons of carbon each year, which is the
equivalent of removing 100 million cars off of the road.
CREATES JOBS

The nuclear industry supports nearly half a million jobs in

the United States and contributes an estimated $60 billion
to the U.S. gross domestic product each year. U.S. nuclear
plants can employ up to 700 workers with salaries that are
30% higher than the local average. They also contribute
billions of dollars annually to local economies through
federal and state tax revenues.

SUPPORTS NATIONAL SECURITY

A strong civilian nuclear sector is essential to U.S. national

security and energy diplomacy. The United States must
maintain its global leadership in this arena to influence the
peaceful use of nuclear technologies. The U.S.
government works with countries in this capacity to build
relationships and develop new opportunities for the
nation’s nuclear technologies.
A lOW CARBON ENERGY SOURCE

Although nuclear power stations take considerable

investment to build, they last a long time and don't cost a
lot to run compared to other types of energy sources. This
means they're cost-effective in the long run. Most of the
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with nuclear
power stations happen during construction and fuel
processing, not when electricity is being generated.

NUCLEAR ENERGY IS SAFE

Safety is at the heart of everything we do. In our 42 year

operating history, there has never been an incident
involving the release of radiation offsite from any of our
UK nuclear power stations. Nuclear power is one of the
most highly regulated industries. In the UK, the industry is
regulated by the Independent Office for Nuclear
Regulation and the Environment Agency or the Scottish
Environment Protection Agency (SEPA).
Disadvantages :
NON-RENEWABLE FUEL SOURCE
Renewable energy sources do not deplete with use .
Solar power uses the sun, while wind and water use
natural reoccurring phenomena to generate electricity.
Nuclear energy does not fit this criterion. Its fuel,
uranium, exists in geological formations like coal and is
likewise limited. As we mine uranium, we deplete it and
cannot manufacture more.

Assuming we maintain our current nuclear output,

analysts estimate that known supplies will last up to
200 years. However, relying more on nuclear power may
deplete the supply quicker, causing reliability problems
sooner than some anticipate.

PROBLEMS WITH STORING WASTE

Although nuclear power does not generate greenhouse
gas emissions, it does produce radioactive waste.
Moreover, this toxic byproduct remains harmful for
thousands of years. Currently, the answer to this
problem is long-term storage. However, while it has
worked so far, storing radioactive waste presents
several challenges.
 Currently, no long-term storage facility exists for
nuclear power plant waste in the US. As a result, the
waste will continue accumulating; once current and
former atomic facilities run out of on-site storage, there
will be a problem. Moreover, radioactive waste might
affect nearby residents or the environment if any
storage facility leaks.
INTENSIVE WATER CONSUMPTION

Nuclear power facilities need a lot of water to cool the

reactor cores. The United States used 320 billion
gallons of water to generate nuclear electricity in 2015
alone. This is more water than the coal industry uses to
process its material. This massive water expenditure may
become unsustainable as water becomes scarce
particularly in the face of climate change.
RISK OF CATASTROPHE
Nuclear power stations are very secure because of
stringent safety regulations. However, despite
precautions, accidents have happened in the past. The
Fukushima, Chernobyl, and Three Mile Island disasters
illustrate that nuclear plant meltdowns may devastate
nearby regions.
Environmental impact
A major environmental concern related to nuclear power is
the creation of radioactive wastes such as uranium mill
tailings, spent (used) reactor fuel, and other radioactive
wastes. These materials can remain radioactive and
dangerous to human health for thousands of years.
Radioactive wastes are subject to special regulations that
govern their handling, transportation, storage, and
disposal to protect human health and the environment.

Radioactive wastes are classified as low-level

waste or high-level waste. The radioactivity of these
wastes can range from a little higher than natural
background levels, such as for uranium mill tailings, to the
much higher radioactivity of used (spent) reactor fuel and
parts of nuclear reactors. The radioactivity of nuclear
waste decreases over time through a process called
radioactive decay. The amount of time it takes for the
radioactivity of radioactive material to decrease to half its
original level is called the radioactive half-life. Radioactive
waste with a short half-life is often stored temporarily
before disposal to reduce potential radiation doses to
workers who handle and transport the waste. This storage
system also reduces the radiation levels at disposal sites.
Perhaps one of the most attractive aspects of nuclear
power is that an operating plant emits no carbon.
However, mining and water discharge damage the
environment. The uranium mining required by nuclear
energy damages the environment and risks
contaminating the surrounding area with arsenic and
radon . In US history, this type of pollution has had
catastrophic effects on the Navajo living near uranium
mines.

In addition, nuclear power facilities create thermal

pollution . Most reactors reside close to lakes or oceans.
Water from these sources condenses hot steam back
into the water at the plant, rising in temperature. The
facilities then discharge this heated water back into its
source. Many native aquatic species cannot survive in
this unnaturally hot water, which is often over 100
degrees Fahrenheit.
Human impact
Radiation is the emission of energy as electromagnetic
waves or moving subatomic particles. Natural radiation
comes from many naturally occurring radioactive
materials found in soil, water, air and in the body. Every
day, people inhale and ingest forms of radiation from air,
food and water.

Today, the most common artificial sources of human

exposure to radiation are X-ray machines and
radiopharmaceuticals used for diagnostic or radiotherapy
and other medical devices.

At very high doses, radiation can impair the functioning of

tissues and organs and produce acute effects such as
nausea and vomiting, skin redness, hair loss, acute
radiation syndrome, local radiation injuries (also known as
radiation burns), or even death.
In a radiological or nuclear emergency, first responders
and the workers of the affected facility (e.g. nuclear power
plant workers) are at a greater risk of being exposed to
doses of radiation high enough to cause acute effects.
The general population, however, is not likely to be
exposed to doses high enough to cause the effects
mentioned above.

In the case of a radiation emergency, people should follow

information from local authorities and comply with urgent
protective actions to reduce their risk of exposure.

children are more likely to develop adverse health effects

from radiation exposure. Younger people's bodies are still
growing and developing. As compared to adults, they have
more cells that are dividing rapidly. Dividing cells are more
sensitive to radiation and vulnerable to damage, which
may lead to development of cancer in the future. Children
also have a longer lifespan ahead of them, therefore there
is more time for cancers to develop and manifest.
Excessive exposure to doses of radiation can increase the
risk of certain types of cancer developing in the long term.
Radioactive iodine can be released during nuclear
emergencies, which, if breathed in or swallowed, will
concentrate in the thyroid gland and increase the risk of
thyroid cancer in younger people (of 0-18 years).To reduce
the risk of developing thyroid cancer, potassium iodide
pills can be administered, but this should be done only
when instructed by the local authorities.

Control
Radiation is part of our life. Background radiation, coming
primarily from natural minerals, is around us all the time.
Fortunately, there are very few situations where an
average person is exposed to uncontrolled sources of
radiation above background. Nevertheless, it is wise to be
prepared and know what to do if such a situation arises.

One of the best ways to be prepared is to understand the

radiation protection principles of time, distance and
shielding. During a radiological emergency (a large release
of radioactive material into the environment), we can use
these principles to help protect ourselves and our families.
Time, distance, and shielding actions minimize your
exposure to radiation in much the same way as they would
to protect you against overexposure to the sun:

Time: For people who are exposed to radiation in addition

to natural background radiation, limiting or minimizing the
exposure time reduces the dose from the radiation source.

Distance: Just as the heat from a fire reduces as you

move further away, the dose of radiation decreases
dramatically as you increase your distance from the
source.

Shielding: Barriers of lead, concrete, or water provide

protection from penetrating gamma rays and x-rays. This
is why certain radioactive materials are stored under water
or in concrete or lead-lined rooms, and why dentists place
a lead blanket on patients receiving x-rays of their teeth.
Therefore, inserting the proper shield between you and a
radiation source will greatly reduce or eliminate the dose
you receive.

Challenges
PUBLIC AWARENESS

Commercial nuclear power is sometimes viewed by the

general public as a dangerous or unstable process. This
perception is often based on three global nuclear
accidents, its false association with nuclear weapons,
and how it is portrayed on popular television shows and
films.

DOE and its national labs are working with industry

to develop new reactors and fuels that will increase the
overall performance of these technologies and reduce the
amount of nuclear waste that is produced.DOE also works
to provide accurate, fact-based information about nuclear
energy through its social media and STEM
outreach efforts to educate the public on the benefits of
nuclear energy.

USED FUEL TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND DISPOSAL

Many people view used fuel as a growing problem and are

apprehensive about its transportation, storage, and
disposal. DOE is responsible for the eventual disposal and
associated transport of all commercial used fuel, which is
currently securely stored at 76 reactor or storage sites in
34 states. For the foreseeable future, this fuel can safely
remain at these facilities until a permanent disposal
solution is determined by Congress.

DOE is currently evaluating nuclear power plant sites and

nearby transportation infrastructure to support the
eventual transport of used fuel away from these sites. It is
also developing new, specially designed railcars to
support large-scale transport of used fuel in the future.

CONSTRUCTING NEW POWER PLANTS

Building a nuclear power plant can be discouraging for

stakeholders. Conventional reactor designs are
considered multi-billion dollar infrastructure projects. High
capital costs, licensing and regulation approvals, coupled
with long lead times and construction delays, have also
deterred public interest.
DOE is rebuilding its nuclear workforce by supporting the
construction of two new reactors at Plant Vogtle in
Waynesboro, Georgia. The units are the first new reactors
to begin construction in the United States in more than 30
years. The expansion project will support up to 9,000
workers at peak construction and create 800 permanent
jobs at the facility when the new units begin operation in
2023.

DOE is also supporting the development of smaller reactor

designs, such as microreactors and small modular
reactors, that will offer even more flexibility in size and
power capacity to the customer. These factory-built
systems are expected to dramatically reduce construction
timelines and will make nuclear more affordable to build
and operate.

HIGH OPERATING COSTS

Challenging market conditions have left the nuclear

industry struggling to compete. DOE’s Light Water Reactor
Sustainability (LWRS) program is working to overcome
these economic challenges by modernizing plant systems
to reduce operation and maintenance costs, while
improving performance. In addition to its materials
research that supports the long-term operation of the
nation’s fleet of reactors, the program is also looking to
diversify plant products through non-electric applications
such as water desalination and hydrogen production .

Case
Following are some case which are faces :

Case study 1: Peer review amongst nuclear operators

(WANO)
Case study 2: Lessons learnt from Gen III construction
projects (Vendors)

Case study 3: The integrated architect-engineer model, a

proven industrial model to optimise design, construction
and operation of NPPs (EDF)

Case study 4: IAEA Milestone approach for national

nuclear infrastructure – UAE experience

Case study 5: Research for extended operation (beyond 60

years) of NPPs (EPRI, NEI)

Case study 6: Progress towards implementation of a Deep

Geological Disposal site in Sweden (Vattenfall, SKB)

Case study 7: Recycling of spent fuel (AREVA)

Case study 8: Decommissioning in Germany (E.ON)

Case study 9: International Collaboration amongst

regulators: Multinational Design Evaluation Programme
(MDEP)

Case study 10: Environmental Impact Assessment in

Finland (Ministry of Employment and the Economy)

Case study 11: New enhanced safety standards in Japan

Case study 12: Financing of new units at the Vogtle Plant

in Georgia, USA

Case study 13: Akkuyu build, own and operate model

(Rosatom)

Case study 14: Nuclear skills assessment in the United

Kingdom (Cogent)
Case study 15: Setting up and qualifying a supply chain for
Gen II and Gen III reactor technology: the case of heavy
component manufacturing in China (AREVA)

Case study 16: Preparing for a new build programme in an

industrial country: supply chain survey (ENEL)

Future outlook
In 2020, nuclear energy produced approximately 46 TW-
hours (TWh) of electrical energy, accounting for 3.2% of
India's total electricity, and the government plans to
expand its use tenfold, to 25% by 2050. The proposed
expansion requires a significant investment in
constructing new nuclear plants throughout the country
An interdisciplinary MIT faculty group decided to study the
future of nuclear power because of a belief that this
technology is an important option for the United States
and the world to meet future energy needs without
emitting carbon dioxide and other atmospheric pollutants.

Other options include increased efficiency, renewables,

and carbon sequestration, and all may be needed for a
successful greenhouse gas management strategy. This
study, addressed to government, industry, and academic
leaders, discusses the interrelated technical, economic,
environmental, and political challenges facing a significant
increase in global nuclear power utilization over the next
half century and what might be done to overcome those
challenges.

Reference :
Google , Wikipedia
Nuclear Power Man and the Environment - 1st Edition
(eBook)
RJ. Pentreath(Author)
Nuclear Energy: What Everyone Needs to Know
Charles D. Ferguson (Author)