Engineering Physics

UNIT I WAVE OPTICS

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Optics is the science that describes the properties of light and its interaction with matter. It is
categorized into three different types- Ray optics, Wave optics and Quantum optics. Ray optics or
geometrical optics considers light as rays and explains the phenomena like reflection, refraction
and dispersion. Wave optics or Physical optics considers light as wave and explains phenomena of
interference, diffraction and polarization while the Quantum optics assumes light as tiny packets
of energy called Photons and is used to explain Photoelectric Effect, Davisson and Germer
experiment and Compton Effect etc. The applications of optics led to design of mirrors, lenses,
prisms, telescopes, microscopes, gratings, polarizers, spectrometers, spectrographs, photo-
multipliers tubes, CRO and CRT’s, Lasers, Optical Fibers, CDs and DVDs. Nowadays a new
branch of optics called Photonics combines electronics and optical aspects and is used in
communications, medical diagnosis, optical computing etc.

1.2. CONCEPT OF WAVEFRONT

 A wavelet is a point of disturbance due to the propagation of light and wavefront is the
locus ofpoints(wavelets)having the same phase of oscillations.
 It is also defined as a surface on which the wave disturbance is in same phase at all the
points. The direction of propagation of a wave at a point is always perpendicular to the
wavefront through that point.
 Depending on source, the shape of the wavefront may be circular, spherical, cylindrical
or planar. The best example of wavefront produced naturally is when one drops a small
pebble in calm pool of water.
 The waves spread out at the point of impact on the surface of water.
 Such wavefronts are circular in shape as the waves on the surface of water are two
dimensional in nature.
 A point source of light in homogeneous medium or a source of sound, spreads waves in
all directions uniformly and are therefore three dimensional or spherical in nature.
 The wavefronts will be then a family of concentric spheres.
 A linear source produces cylindrical wavefronts.
 At a distance far away from the source, both the spherical and cylindrical wavefronts can
be treated as plane wavefronts.
 All these types of wavefronts are shown in fig.1.1.

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Fig.1.1:(a) Circular(b)Spherical (c)Cylindrical(d) Plane wavefront

1.3 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE AND SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

1.3.1 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

 The Superposition principle states that: When two or more waves arrive at a point in a
medium simultaneously, the resultant displacement at that point is the algebraic sum of
their individual displacements.
 After the superposition, the wave trains travel as if they have not interfered at all. Each
wave train retains its individual characteristics. They pass through each other without
being disturbed.
 To understand this, as shown in fig.1.2, consider two waves travelling in opposite
directions pass through a point in a medium.
 Let the separate displacement of the particle by individual wave be y1 and y2.
 If the two waves are incident with the same phase [fig.1.2(a)], then the resultant
displacement at the point,
y = y1 + y2. ----------- (1.01)
 After superposition they continue to move in opposite directions.
 On the other hand, if these two waves are incident on the particle in opposite phase [fig.
1.2(b)] then the resultant displacement,
y = y1 ~ y2. ----------- (1.02)

Fig.1.2: Superposition of two waves a) in phase b) out of phase

1.4. COHERENT SOURCES

 Two sources of light waves are said to be coherent when they emit light waves of same
amplitude, same frequency and have constant phase difference between them.
 Therefore, the two sources must emit radiation of same wavelength.

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1.4.1 RELATION BETWEEN PATH DIFFERENCE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE

If the path difference between the two waves is λ, the corresponding phase difference is 2𝜋.
Suppose for a path difference 𝑥, the phase difference is δ.
2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋
Then the phase difference δ is given by δ = = × (path difference)
λ λ

1.5 PHENOMENON OF INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT

1.5.1. INTERFERENCE:
The phenomenon of interference of light is based on superposition principle.
 DEFINITION: Interference is defined as the redistribution of light intensity (or energy)
due to the superposition of light waves coming from two or more coherent sources.
 Therefore, when two or more waves having same amplitude and same frequency,
travelling along the same direction in the region of same medium and having constant or
zero phase difference, combine together, the energies of these waves are added up and
then redistributed in such a way that some areas are dark and some are bright. This
phenomenon is called Interference.
 For example, the bright colours in feathers of peacock and hummingbird are due to
interference phenomenon. The structure of feathers split and recombine visible light so
that interference occurs for certain colours.

1.5.2. CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

 When two waves of same wavelength and of same phase superimpose on each other,
constructive interference occurs.
 The resultant displacement of the particle is given by y  y1  y 2 and the resultant
amplitude is two times the amplitude of the initial wave, while the intensity increases by 4
times (Intensity α Amplitude2) as shown in Fig.1.3, provided the amplitude of both the
waves are same.

Fig.1.3:Constructive interference
Conditions for constructive interference are:
Phase difference = 0, 2π, 4π… .= 2nπ, where, n=0,1,2,3,4…. . -----------(1.03)
Path difference = nλ ----------- (1.04)
Constructive interference leads to appearance of bright fringes on screen.

1.5.3 DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

 When two waves of same wavelength which are out of phase superimpose on each other,
destructive interference occurs.
 The resultant displacement of the particle is given by y  y1  y 2 .
 Thus, the resultant amplitude and hence the intensity will be almost zero as shown in
Fig.1.4, provided the amplitude of both the waves are nearly same.

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Fig.1.4: Destructive interference

Conditions for destructive interference are:
Phase difference = π, 3π, 5π….= (2n+1)π, where, n=0,1,2,3,4…..----------- (1.05)
Path difference = (2n+1) λ/2 ----------- (1.07)
Destructive interference leads to the appearance of dark fringes on screen.

1.5.4 METHODS FOR OBTAINING INTERFERENCE PATTERN

The methods for obtaining interference pattern are based on the method to obtain coherent
sources. The two methods are:
1. Division of Wavefront:
 The wavefront generated from a source of light is divided into two parts.
 These two divided parts of the same wavefront travel unequal distances and
recombine to produce interference pattern.
 For example: Young’s double slit, Fresnel’s Biprism and Lloyd’s mirror.
2. Division of Amplitude:
 The amplitude of a beam of light is divided into two parts by partial reflection
and refraction.
 These divided parts after travelling by different paths recombine to produce
interference pattern.
 For example: In Newton’s Rings, Wedge shaped film and antireflection coatings.

QUE: What is meant by interference of light.

QUE: What are the necessary conditions on the path difference and phase difference
between two waves that interfere (a) constructively(b) destructively.

1.6. YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT- (Division of wavefront)

 Thomas Young in 1802 demonstrated the experiment on the interference of light using the
method of division of wavefront.
 He made a pinhole S in a cardboard and allowed sunlight to pass through it producing a
single wavefront.
 This light was then allowed to fall upon another cardboard having two pinholes S 1 and S2
very close to each other.
 These two pinholes were at equal distance from the source S and act as two coherent
sources. The single wavefront from source S gets divided into two wavefronts passing
through S1 and S2.
 The emergent light was received on a plane screen placed at some distance. The
experimental arrangement is shown in fig.1.5.
 At a given point on the screen the wavefronts from the two holes had different phases.
 These wavefronts interfered to give a pattern of bright and dark alternative lines.
 The variation of intensity on the screen demonstrated that the interference taking place
between the light wavefronts reaching the screen from the two pinholes.
 The pattern of bright and dark areas is sharply defined only if light of a single wavelength
is used.
 Young's original experiments were performed with white light.
 This experiment successfully proved the existence of the wave nature of light.

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Fig.1.5: Young’s double slit experiment

1.7 INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS- (Division by Amplitude):

1.7.1 INTRODUCTION

We are all very much familiar with colours on thin film of oil on the surface of water and on thin
film of a soap-bubble. These colours are due to interference phenomena taking place on their
surfaces. Two famous scientists, Newton and Hooke, observed and discovered interference
phenomenon due to multiple reflections from the surface of thin transparent materials. Hooke
observed such colours in thin films of mica and similar thin transparent plates.
Newton observed the interference pattern in form of circular rings when a convex lens
was placed on a plane glass-plate. Young explained this on the basis of interference between light
reflected from the top and the bottom surface of a thin film. Interference in the case of thin films
can takes place due to(l) reflected light and (2) due to transmitted light. The method of obtaining
interference pattern in thin films is by division of amplitude.
Tremendous research in taking place nowadays on optical thin films technology as it is
widely used in telecommunications, lasers, display/lighting, photovoltaic, photonic devices,
sensors, security devices, ophthalmic equipment, automotive devices, building, biological and in
biomedical applications.

1.7.2. THIN FILM: DEFINITION

 Thin film is defined as the film whose thickness is about the order of one wavelength of
visible light which is takes to be 5500Å.
 For example, an air film, soap bubble, oil film on water and thin sheet of transparent
materials such as glass, mica.

QUE: What is a thin film? Give examples. (1M)[Summer-11,13,15&18]

1.8. GEOMETRICAL PATH DIFFERENCE AND OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE

 We know that speed of light decreases if it travels through a denser medium. It means that
light will take more time to cover the same distance through denser medium having large
refractive index.

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 The geometrical path is the shortest distance between two points independent of the
medium.
 Optical path is the path traveled by light in a medium having refractive index ‘µ’.
Therefore, it is clear that geometrical path is always less than the optical path by a factor
µ.
 Optical path length is equal to the product of refractive index and geometrical path.
i.e., Optical path = R.I × Geometrical path

Difference between Optical path and Geometrical path is summarized in following table:

Sr. Optical Path Geometrical Path

no.
1 The distance traveled by light in the The actual distance between two points A
medium is known as optical path. and B in the space is known as geometrical
path.
2 Optical path is different in different G.P. remains the same in all types of
medium. medium (air, material)
3 O.P. depends on refractive index (µ) of G.P. is independent of R.I. (µ).
medium.
4 O.P. = Δ = µL G.P.L. = B – A = L
Where µ = R.I. of medium A & B are two different points in space.
L = Geometrical path

1.9. THIN PARALLEL FILM- THIN FILM OF UNIFORM THICKNESS

A transparent thin film of uniform thickness bounded by two parallel surfaces is known as plane
parallel thin film.

 Let us consider a plane parallel thin film of uniform thickness‘t’ having refractive index
‘µ’ as shown in Fig.1.6.
 The film is surrounded by air on both sides. Let a monochromatic source of wavelength
‘λ’ illuminates the plane parallel thin film obliquely.
 Let ray AB represent one of the incident rays at point B, a part of incident light at B is
reflected as BC (ray 1) and partially transmitted into the film along BD.
 The transmitted ray BD partially reflected back into the film along DE and refracts into
the outer medium as EF (ray 2).
 The refracted ray emerges out along EF, is parallel to the ray BC.

Fig.1.6: Interference in parallel thin film

 Geometrical path difference between ray1 and ray2 = (BD + DE) – BH

 Optical path difference,

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Δ = μ [(BD + DE)] – BH ----------- (1.08)

 In fig.1.6, ∠i is the angle of incidence and ∠r the angle of refraction.

 In Δ BDG,
𝐺𝐷 𝑡
cos 𝑟 = =
𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐷
𝑡
∴ 𝐵𝐷 = ----------- (1.09)
cos 𝑟
𝑡
Also 𝐷𝐸 = ----------- (1.10)
cos 𝑟
 In Δ EHB,

𝐵𝐻 𝐵𝐻
sin 𝑖 = =
𝐵𝐸 2𝐵𝐺
∴ BH = 2 BG sin i

 But in Δ BDG,
𝐵𝐺 𝐵𝐺
tan 𝑟 = =
𝐺𝐷 𝑡
∴ BG = t × tan r
∴ BH = 2t × tan r× sin i
sin 𝑖
or BH = 2t ×tan r ×μ sin r [∵ 𝜇 = sin 𝑟
]
sin r
BH = 2 μt × × sinr
cos r
sin2 𝑟
𝐵𝐻 = 2 𝜇𝑡 ∙ cos 𝑟 ----------- (1.11)
 From eqns. (1.09), (1,10) and (1.11) we substitute the values of BD, DE and BH in eqn.
(1.08). Therefore, Eqn. (1.08) becomes,
𝑡 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
∆= 𝜇 ( + ) − 2𝜇𝑡
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟

2𝜇𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
∆= ( ) − 2𝜇𝑡
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟

2𝜇𝑡
∆= (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟)
cos 𝑟
2𝜇𝑡
∆= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑟)
cos 𝑟

 Therefore, path difference ∆= 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 ----------- (1.12)

 But at point ‘B’ as light is being reflected from denser medium, there is introduced a path
difference of λ/2 in ray 1. This does not happen with ray 2 as it reflects from rarer
medium.
𝜆
 True path difference,∆𝑡 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − ----------- (1.13)
2
∴
1.9.1. EXPRESSION FOR MAXIMA (BRIGHTNESS)
 If the path difference between the rays is integral multiple of wavelength ‘λ’ then we get
constructive interference or a maxima i.e.

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𝜆
2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 − = 𝑛𝜆
2
𝜆 𝜆
𝑜𝑟 2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 + = (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1) (condition for maxima) … (1.14)
2

1.9.2. EXPRESSION FOR MINIMA (DARKNESS)

𝜆
 If the path difference between the rays is odd multiple of then we get destructive
2
interference or a minima i.e.
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 − = (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1 + 1) = 𝑛𝜆
2
2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 (condition for minima) … (1.15)

 When monochromatic light is incident normally on uniform thin film:-

For normal incidence, r = 0, i.e., cos r = 1
 For condition of maxima we get,
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 ---------- (1.16)

And for condition of minima, we get,

2𝜇𝑡cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 ---------- (1.17)

1.9.3. WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THIN FILM IS EXPOSED TO SUN (WHITE) LIGHT

 As white light consists of many wavelengths (colours) so when it is incident on thin film then all
colors are reflected from the top and bottom surface.
 But all of them do not satisfies the condition of brightness (maxima).
 Hence reflected light will have only those colours which satisfy the condition of maxima. And
the colours which satisfy the condition of minima (darkness) will remain absent.
 Hence thin film appears colored under sun (white) light.

1.9.4. WHAT HAPPENS WHEN FILM IS VERY THIN

 When film is so thin like only a few layers of air molecules as in case of air film, then the
thickness of film is very small as compared to wavelength of incident light (i.e., t << λ).
 Hence, the path difference introduced will be nearly equal to λ/2.
 Hence the wave reflected from upper surface and bottom surface of film will interfere
destructively and the film appears dark.

1.10. WEDGE SHAPED THIN FILM-THIN FILM OF VARYING THICKNESS

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 A wedge- shaped thin film is a thin film of varying thickness having thickness zero at one
end and uniformly increasing towards other end.
 Such a thin film of air can be formed by placing two glass slides resting on each other at
one edge and separated by a thin spacer at the opposite edge as shown in figure 1.7(a).
 The air film has zero thickness at the apex.
 The air film is illuminated by monochromatic source of light of wavelength ‘λ’ (like
sodium source).
 The incident light ray AB is partially reflected from upper glass plate as ray BC and part
of it is transmitted as ray BD.
 The transmitted light is reflected back into the medium from bottom glass plate. The light
reflected from bottom surface passes out as refracted ray EF.
 The two reflected rays as shown in fig.1.7(b) form an interference pattern consisting of
alternate dark and bright fringes.
 The fringes areof equal width, straight and parallel to the edge of the wedge.

Fig.1.7: (a) Interference in wedge shaped thin film (b) Interference pattern

 The optical path difference between two interfering rays, Δ is,

𝜆
∆= 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − 2 ----------(1.18)
where, μ is the refractive index of film material, t is the thickness of film, r is the angle
of refraction and λ is the wavelength of monochromatic light.

1.10.1. EXPRESSION FOR FRINGE WIDTH (β)

 Let us consider a wedge- shaped film of refractive index ‘μ’ and wedge angle ‘θ’ as
shown in fig.1.8.
 A monochromatic light of wavelength ‘λ’ is incident normally (i.e., cos r = 1) on the
wedge.

Fig.1.8: Determination of fringe width

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 Let nth dark band appears at A and consecutive (n+1)th dark band at B. Let film thickness
at point A and B be‘t1’ and ‘t2’ respectively.
 Applying condition of destructive interference,
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
 At point A,
2𝜇𝑡1 = 𝑛𝜆 ----------- (1.19)
 At point B,

2𝜇𝑡2 = (𝑛 + 1)𝜆 ----------- (1.20)

 On subtracting eqn. (1.19) from (1.20), we get,

2𝜇(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝜆
𝜆
or 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = ----------- (1.21)
2𝜇

 And in Δ ABC,
𝐵𝐶
tan 𝜃 =
𝐴𝐶
(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
tan 𝜃 =
𝛽
 Here ‘’ is the fringe width i.e., distance between two consecutive dark or bright fringes.
𝑜𝑟 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝛽 tan 𝜃
𝜆
2𝜇
= 𝛽 tan 𝜃 (from equation (1.21))

𝜆
= 𝛽𝜃 (∵ for small value of θ, tanθ = θ)
2𝜇

𝜆
𝛽= ----------- (1.22)
2𝜇𝜃

Since all the parameters on right side are constant in above equation, hence fringes are
equidistant.
QUE: Derive an expression for fringe width or β in interference pattern obtained in a Wedge
shaped thin film. (4M) [Summer-11]
QUE: Obtain an expression for fringe width or β in interference pattern obtained in a
Wedge shaped thin film. (3M) [Summer13&15]
QUE: Deduce an expression for fringe width in case of Wedge shaped thin film.
(4M) [Winter -13&17]

1.10.2. DETERMINATION OF WEDGE ANGLE (𝜃)

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Fig 1.9: Determination of wedge angle

 Let us consider a wedge-shaped film with very small wedge angle ‘θ’ as shown in fig.1.9.
Also assume that mth dark fringe appears at point ‘A’ and (m+n)th at ‘B’.
 Hence, at point A, dark fringe is given by,

2𝜇𝑡1 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑡1
but, tan 𝜃 =
𝑥1
⟹ 𝑡1 = 𝑥1 tan 𝜃 ≅ 𝑥1 𝜃
∴ 2𝜇𝑥1 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 ------------ (1.23)

 Similarly, at B,

2𝜇𝑡2 = (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝜆
𝑡2
but tan 𝜃 =
𝑥2
⟹ 𝑡2 = 𝑥2 tan 𝜃 ≅ 𝑥2 𝜃
∴ 2𝜇𝑥2 𝜃 = (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝜆 ------------ (1.24)

 Subtracting eqn. (1.23) from eqn. (1.24), we get,

2𝜇(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑛𝜆
𝜃= ------------- (1.25)
2𝜇(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )

 For μ = 1,

𝑛𝜆
𝜃= ------------ (1.26)
2(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )

Thus, we can calculate wedge angle 𝜃 using above equation.

1.10.3. SALIENT FEATURES OF INTERFERENCE PATTERN OF WEDGE- SHAPED

THIN FILM

1] Fringe at the apex is dark –

 At the apex, the two glass slides are in contact with each other. Therefore, the thickness of
the air film at the contact edge is negligible (t 0). The optical path difference then
becomes,

𝜆
∆= 2𝜇𝑡 −
2

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𝜆
∆= 0 − (𝑎𝑠 𝑡 = 0)
2
𝜆
∴ ∆= −
2

 It implies that the two waves interfere destructively. Therefore, fringes at the apex are
dark.

2] Straight and parallel fringes –

 Each fringe is form by the interference of rays reflected from the point of same thickness.
 As the loci of points having same thickness are in straight line and parallel, hence fringes
are straight and parallel.

3] Equidistance fringes –

 The fringe width β is given by,

𝜆
𝛽≈
2𝜃
where ‘λ’ is the wavelength of the incident light and ‘θ’ is the angle of the
wedge.
 Since λ and θ are constant, therefore β is also constant for a given wedge angle. Hence the
fringes are equidistant from each other.

4] Localized fringes –

 The fringes are very close to the top surface of the wedge and can be seen with a
microscope.
5]Fringes are of equal thickness –
 As each maxima (bright fringe) or minima (dark fringe) are a locus of constant film
thickness, the fringes are called fringes of equal thickness.

1.10.4. APPLICATIONS OF WEDGE- SHAPED FILM

1] Determination of the thickness of the spacer:

(Spacer will be thin wire, thin sheet etc.)

Fig 1.10: Determination of thickness of spacer

 From equation (1.25), the wedge angle can be calculated as

𝑛𝜆
𝜃=
2𝜇(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝑡
But tan 𝜃 =
𝑙

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 For small values of 𝜃, tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃,

𝑡
∴𝜃=
𝑙
𝑡 𝑛𝜆
∴ =
𝑙 2𝜇(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝒍𝒏𝝀
or 𝒕 = ------------ (1.27)
𝟐𝝁(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 )
where, t is the thickness of thin wire or spacer.

2] Testing of optically flat surface:

The flatness of the surface can be inspected easily by keeping an optical flat surface at an angle on
the surface under inspection and illuminating it with a monochromatic light (Fig.1.11).

Fig.1.11: Testing of surface finish (a) optically flat (b) concave (c) convex surface

The light will produce one of the following interpretations: -

 An air wedge will produce straight equidistant fringes if surface is flat.
 If the fringes are curved towards the contact edge then surface is concave.
 If the fringes are curved away from the contact edge then surface is convex
 The curved fringes indicate that the surface is not having smooth surface finish.
 The surface under test is then polished and above process is repeated again and again till
straight and parallel fringes are obtained.

1.11. NEWTON’S RINGS- WEDGE SHAPE THIN FILM OF VARYING THICKNESS

The phenomenon of Newton's rings, named after Isaac Newton, is another example of interference
in thin films.

Fig.1.12:(a) Experimental set up of Newton’s rings (b)Ray diagram (c) Fringe pattern

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 The experimental set-up consists of a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature with
its curved surface touching the top surface of a plane glass plate as shown in fig.1.12(a).
 This arrangement forms a wedge shape air film with zero thickness at the point of contact
between lens and glass plate.
 The thickness of the wedge- shaped air film goes on increasing as we move away from
the point of contact on either side.
 When such a system is illuminated by monochromatic light at normal incidence, a part of
light is reflected from top surface of the air film as ray 1.
 The remaining part passes through the air film(fig.1.12(b)) and reflects as ray 2 after
striking the plane glass plate.
 Ray 1 and ray 2 interfere to produce an interference pattern in form of concentric circular
rings called Newton’s rings as shown in fig1.12 (c)with center as point of contact.

1.11.1EXPRESSION FOR THE RADIUS OR DIAMETER OF RINGS

Fig 1.13: Determining radii of the dark rings

 Consider a Newton’s rings setup, with a Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature ‘R
as shown in fig.1.13.
 Let ‘t’ be the thickness of film at point ‘A’ and ‘B’.
 The radius and diameter of nth dark ring thus formed be ‘rn’ and ‘Dn’ respectively. The
diameter of ring Dn= AB.
 From the geometry of fig.1.13,
(MN)× (NO) = (AN)× (BN) (using theorem of intersecting chords)
(2R-t)× (t) = (rn) (rn)
∴ rn 2 = 2tR − t 2

or rn = √2tR − t 2

Since t <<< 𝑅, 𝑡 2 can be neglected compared to 2Rt

∴ 𝑟𝑛 = √2𝑡𝑅 ---------- (1.28)
∴ 𝑟𝑛 ∝ √𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑛 ∝ √𝑅
also 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = 2√2𝑡𝑅 =√8𝑅𝑡 ------------ (1.29)
∴ 𝐷𝑛 ∝ √𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑛 ∝ √𝑅

 Equation (1.28) and (1.28) shows that radius and diameter of dark rings is
proportional to thickness ‘t’ of the film and radius of curvature ‘R’ of plano-convex
lens.

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 However, the value of wavelength of incident monochromatic light ‘λ’ and R is

constant for a particular experimental set up.

For dark ring:-

 In case of normal incidence cos r =1 and µ =1 for air film.
 Therefore, the condition for obtaining dark ring becomes,
2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 ------------(1.30)

 Substituting the value of ‘2t’ from equation (1.30) in equation (1.28) we get,
𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛𝜆𝑅 ------------ (1.31)
∴ 𝑟𝑛 ∝ √𝑛
also 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = 2√𝑛𝜆𝑅 ------------ (1.32)
∴ 𝐷𝑛 ∝ √𝑛

Equation (1.31) and (1.32) shows that radius and diameter of dark rings is proportional to
square root of natural numbers.

For bright ring:

(2n+1)
 The condition for obtaining bright ring is 2t = λ
2
 Therefore, the radius of bright ring is given by
(2𝑛+1)
𝑟𝑛 = √ 𝜆𝑅 ---------- (1.33)
2

(2𝑛 + 1)
∴ 𝑟𝑛 ∝ √
2
(2𝑛+1)
also 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = 2√ 𝜆𝑅 ------------ (1.34)
2

(2𝑛 + 1)
∴ 𝐷𝑛 ∝ √
2
Equation (1.33) and (1.34) shows that radius and diameter of bright rings is proportional to
square root of odd numbers.

1.11.2. EXPRESSION FOR RADIUS OF CURVATURE ‘R’ OF PLANO CONVEX LENS

 From equation (1.31), the radius of nth dark ring is given as

𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛𝜆𝑅
∴ Diameter𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = √4𝑛𝜆𝑅
𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑛 2 = 4𝑛𝜆𝑅 ----------- (1.35)
 Similarly, Diameter of (n+p)th dark ring, is obtained as
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2 = 4(𝑛 + 𝑝)𝜆𝑅 ----------- (1.36)

 Subtracting equation (1.35)from equation (1.36),

2
→ 𝐷𝑛+𝑝 2 − 𝐷𝑛 = 4𝑝𝜆𝑅
2
Dn+p 2 −Dn
∴𝜆= ----------- (1.37)
4pR

2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝2 −𝐷𝑛
and 𝑅 = 4𝑝𝜆
----------- (1.38)

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Where, ‘p’ is an integer, ‘λ’ is wavelength of light and ‘R’ is the radius of curvature of Plano-
convex lens.

1.11.3. SILENT FEATURES OF NEWTON’S RINGS

1. Central Spot is dark in reflected light

 At the point of contact of the lens and glass plate the thickness of air film is negligibly
small compared to wavelength of light.
∴t ≅ 0
𝜆
∴path difference ∆ ≅ 2
𝜆
 For path difference of , the interfering rays will always be 180° out of phase and
2
destructively interfere with each other.
 Therefore, the two interfering waves at the center are opposite in phase and produce a
dark spot.

2. Fringes are not equally spaced or Rings get closer away from the center
 Diameters of a dark rings is directly proportional to square root of natural numbers, while
the diameters of the bright rings is proportional to square root of odd numbers.
 Therefore, as the order of rings (n) increases, the diameter does not increase in the same
proportion.
 Therefore, the rings get closer and closer with increasing radii as we move away from the
centre.
 Also, the wedge angle is zero at the point of contact and gradually increases as we move
away from the point of contact on either side.
λ
 So, according to the relation β = , when wedge angle ′θ′ increases, fringe width ‘β’
2µθ
decreases and hence fringes get closer and closer with increasing radii.

3. Fringes are circular.

 When a plano-convex lens of very large radius of curvature is placed on the plane glass
plate, a thin air film of varying thickness is formed in between these two surfaces.
 The locus of points where the air film has the same thickness fall on circle with center as
the point of contact.
 The thickness of film is same at all points on any circle having center as point of contact.
The fringes are therefore circular.

4. Plano-convex lens should have Large Radius of curvature:

 The radius and diameter of dark rings is directly proportional to square root of radius of
curvature of plano-convex lens.
rn α √R
Dn α √R
 Greater the radius of curvature of the lens, larger would be the diameter of the ring.
Hence, the error in the measurement of diameter is minimized.
 Secondly if ‘R’ is large, the angle enclosing the air film ′𝜃′ will become smaller and
λ
hence according to relation β = ,the fringe width ‘β’ will become larger.
2µθ
 Thus, there will be more accuracy in measurement of diameter of rings.

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QUE: In Newton’s ring experiment why: i) The rings are not equally spaced?
ii) The central fringe is dark? (3M)[Summer-11]
QUE: In Newton’s ring experiment why: i) Plano convex lens should have larger radius
ii) Rings get closer away from center
iii) Central fringe is dark in reflected light.
(4M)[Summer-15]
QUE: In Newton’s ring experiment why: i) Rings get closer away from center
ii) Fringes are circular
iii) Central fringe is dark in reflected light. (3M)[Summer-19]
QUE: In Newton’s ring experiment why: i) Plano convex lens should have larger radius of
curvature ii) Rings gets closer away from center . (3M)[Summer-13]
QUE: Why in Newton’s ring experiment the central spot is dark? (4M)[Winter-13]
QUE: In Newton’s Ring experiment, explain why i) Plano-convex lens should have larger
radius ii) Rings get closer away from the center iii) Central fringe is dark in reflected light
iv) Fringes are circular. (4M)[Summer-18]

1.11.4. APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S RINGS EXPERIMENT

1. To find the wavelength of light used.
2. To find the radius of curvature of a plano- convex lens.
3. To find the refractive index of liquid.
4. To test the surface of lens.

1]DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF MONOCHROMATIC SOURCE

Wavelength ‘λ’ of monochromatic light can be determined by measuring the diameters of the dark
rings and using the formula as given in equation (1.37),
𝟐
𝑫𝒏+𝒑 𝟐 − 𝑫𝒏
𝝀=
𝟒𝒑𝑹
Thus wavelength of monochromatic source can be calculated experimentally by using a plano
convex lens of known radius of curvature R.

2]DETERMINATION OF RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF A GIVEN PLANO CONVEX

LENS
If the wavelength of the monochromatic source is known, the radius of curvature of a given plano-
convex lens can be calculated by using the formula as given in equation (1.38),
𝟐
𝑫𝒏+𝒑 𝟐 − 𝑫𝒏
𝑹=
𝟒𝒑𝝀

3]TESTING THE LENS SURFACES

This experiment is used for testing the optical components of telescopes and other
instruments.
The lens surface is tested by keeping it on a master. If the lens is grounded perfectly, circular
fringe pattern can be obtained as shown in Fig.1.14 (a).If not, distorted patterns can be
observed as shown in Fig. 1.14 (b) and (c).
 Variations in the fringe pattern indicate how the lens must
be grounded and polished to remove the imperfections. Thus, the fringes map the lack of
fitness between lens and master.

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Fig.1.14: Testing the lens surface using Newton’s rings (a) circular ring pattern indicating the
perfectness of the surface (b) and (c) distorted patterns indicating irregularities.

1.12. ANTIREFLECTION COATING

In optical instruments like compound microscopes, camera lenses, telescopes etc., a combination
of lenses are used. When light enters such instruments, almost 96% of light is transmitted and 4%
is lost in single reflection at air-glass interface. The loss goes on increasing for multiple
reflections. For achromatic objective lens used in telescopes comprising of 4 lenses, almost 30%
of flight is reflected and rest is transmitted. When intensity of light is low such losses are not
desirable. Therefore, there is a need of reducing losses of intensity of light due to reflections from
an optical surface. To overcome this problem, a transparent film of proper thickness and material
is coated on the glass surface. This film is called antireflection coating. It was discovered by
German scientist Alexender Smakula in 1935.
Antireflection coatings have tremendous impact on optics, and even today, they still
exceed all the other types of coatings, in sheer volume of production. In some applications
antireflection coatings are required for the reduction of surface reflections. In other not only
reflection is reduced but also transmittance is increased considerably. As it is a known fact that
radiations incident upon the surface of an optical material is divided into reflected, transmitted,
absorbed and scattered radiations. The fraction of available energy that is distributed amongst
these is determined by the indices of refraction. Antireflection coatings can range from a single
layer having virtually zero reflectance at just one wavelength, to a multilayer system of many
layers having virtually zero reflectance over a wide spectral range.
Definition- A thin transparent film coated on a surface in order to suppress reflections from
it is called an antireflection film (AR coating).

1.12.1. PRINCIPLE OF AR COATING (AMPLITUDE AND PHASE CONDITION)

For coating to act as Antireflection coating it must satisfy two important conditions-
1. Amplitude condition – Waves must have equal amplitude
2. Phase condition – Waves reflected from top and bottom must be exactly 180o out of
phase.
These two conditions ensure that the reflected waves cancel each other completely.

1.12.2. AMPLITUDE CONDITION

 The amplitude condition requires that the amplitudes of the reflected rays from top and
bottom surface of AR coating should be equal.
 For this the refractive index of the coating material must be nearly equal to the square
root of the refractive index of the substrate material (glass).

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𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜇𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 = √𝜇𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 --------- (1.39)

∴ 𝜇𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 < 𝜇𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
1.12.3. PHASE CONDITION AND EXPRESSION FOR MINIMUM THICKNESS OF THE
FILM

Fig.1.16: Anti reflection coating

 Consider a thin film coated on a glass surface as shown in fig.1.16. In order to satisfy the
phase condition, the waves reflected from top and bottom (Ray1 and Ray 2) must be
exactly 180o out of phase.
 After reflection both the rays undergo a phase change of 180 0. It means that their optical
𝜆
path difference changes by .
2
 Therefore, the equation for optical difference becomes,
𝜆 𝜆
Δ = 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 cos 𝑟 − 2 − 2 ------------ (1.40)

where ′𝜇𝑓 ′ is the refractive index of coated film

or Δ = 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 cos 𝑟 − 𝜆
Δ = 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 cos 𝑟
 For normal incidence, cos r =1
∴ Δ = 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡
𝜆
 But for destructive interference, Δ = (2𝑛 + 1) 2
𝜆
∴ 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
 For minimum thickness of the film i.e.,𝑡 = 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 and n = 0,
𝜆
∴ 2𝜇𝑓 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2
𝜆
or 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4 𝜇𝑓
---------- (1.41)

Therefore, the optical thickness of the film (𝜇𝑓 𝑡) should be equal to one- quarter
wavelength.

QUE: What do you understand by antireflection coating? Deduce an expression for

minimum thickness of antireflection coating. (3M)[Winter-16][Summer-19]
QUE: What is antireflection coating? Obtain the condition for minimum thickness of such a
coating. (3M)[Summer16](4M)[Winter-18]

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QUE: What is antireflection coating? Obtain an expression for minimum optical thickness of
the film to act as an antireflection coating. (4M)[Winter-17]
QUE: Explain antireflection coating. Obtain the condition for minimum thickness of such a
coating. (3M)[Winter-19]

1.14. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT: INTRODUCTION

Diffraction is a general characteristic exhibited by all types of waves, be it sound waves, light
waves, water waves or matter waves. Since the wavelength of light is much smaller than the
dimensions of most of the obstacles; we do not encounter diffraction effects of light in everyday
observations. Also, the finite resolution of our eye or of optical instruments such as telescopes or
microscopes is limited due to the phenomenon of diffraction.
The first scientist who recorded accurate observations on the diffraction phenomenon was
an Italian scientist Francesco Maria Grimaldi, in 1660.He coined the word "diffraction" from the
Latin word ‘diffringere’, meaning ‘to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into
different directions. Diffraction is defined as the bending of light around the corners of an
obstacle or encroachment of light within the geometrical shadow of the obstacle or
aperture.Huygens’ Principle explains diffraction in a very simplified manner. According to this
principle when a wavefront is partially obstructed, only the wavelets from the exposed parts
superpose and the resulting wavefront has a different shape. This allows for the bending round the
edges. In case of light waves, beautiful fringe patterns comprising maximum and minimum
intensity are formed due to diffraction.
Some examples of diffraction phenomenon in real life are formation of rainbow after
rain, CD and DVD’s reflecting rainbow colours, Sun appears red during sunset, bending of
light at the corners of the door as shown in figure 1.17. Diffraction in the atmosphere by small
particles can cause a bright ring to be visible around a bright light source like the sun or the moon.

Fig.1.17: Some examples of diffraction phenomenon in real life

 The amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength of light and the size of the
opening as shown in fig.1.18.
 If the opening is much larger than the light's wavelength (Fig.1.18 a), the bending
will be almost unnoticeable.
 However, if the two are closer in size or equal (fig.1.18 b), the amount of
bending is considerable.
 An obstacle or opening will diffract shorter wavelength slightly and longer
wavelengths more as shown in fig.1.18 (c).

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Fig.1.18: a) and b) As slit opening decreases, diffraction increases. c) With shorter wavelength and
no change in size of opening, diffraction decreases.

Diffraction produces dark or bright fringes known as diffraction bands or fringes.

1.15. TYPES OF DIFFRACTION-

Diffraction phenomena can be divided into two types:

1.Fresnel diffraction: The source and the screen are at finite distance from the obstacle (or
aperture). Lenses are not used to make the rays parallel or convergent. The incident wavefronts are
either spherical or cylindrical.

Fig.1.19: Fresnel Diffraction

2.Fraunhofer diffraction: The source and the screen are at infinite distance from the obstacle.
Lenses are used to make the rays parallel or convergent. The incident wavefront is plane
wavefront.

Fig.1.20: Fresnel Diffraction

1.15 (a) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FRESNEL AND FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION

FRESNEL DIFFRACTION FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION

1. The source and the screen are at 1. The source and the screen are at infinite
finite distances from the obstacle. distances from the obstacle.

2. Lenses are not used to make the 2. Lenses are used to make the rays
rays parallel or convergent. parallel or convergent.

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 3. The incident wavefronts are either 3. The incident wavefront is plane

 spherical or cylindrical wavefront.

1.16. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION

INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION
1. Interference phenomenon is due to 1. Diffraction phenomenon is due to
superposition of light waves from two superposition of secondary wavelets originating
separated wavefronts. from different points of the exposed partsof the
same wavefront.
2. In the interference pattern, the contrast 2. In the diffraction pattern, the contrast
between maxima and minima is good. between maxima and minima is poor.
3. The interference fringes are equally spaced. 3. The interference fringes are not equally
spaced.
4. In the interference pattern, regions of 4. In the diffraction pattern, regions of
minimum intensity are perfectly dark and all minimum intensity are not perfectly dark and
bright fringes are of equal intensity. only the first maxima has maximum intensity
and the intensity decreases as the order of
maxima increases.

QUE: Define diffraction. Give examples.

QUE: Explain the difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.
QUE: Write short note on Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.

1.17. DIFFRACTION GRATING:

 Diffraction Gratings are optical components used to separate light into its component
wavelengths.
 They are used in spectroscopy, or for adapting into spectrophotometers or
monochromators.
 Diffraction Gratings can either be transmissive or reflective (Fig.1.21).

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 Engineering Physics

Fig.1.21: Types of Diffraction Grating (a) Transmission (b) Reflection

 Definition: Grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque

rulings(lines) are made with a fine diamond pointer. Therefore, it consists of a large
number of equally spaced parallel transparent spaces called slits.
 Grating element and Grating equation:
 Grating Element or Grating spacing ‘d’: The rulings on the grating act as obstacles
having a definite width ‘b’ and the transparent space between the rulings act as slit of
width ‘a’. The combined width of a ruling and a slit is called grating element d = a + b.
 Grating equation (diffraction Grating formula): If a monochromatic light of
wavelength λ is incident normally on a grating, the position of principal maxima is given
by,
d sin θ = nλ ---------- (1.42)
or (a + b) sin θ = n λ
 Here‘d’ is the distance between two consecutive slits and n =1, 2, 3 -----, is the order of
principal maxima. Equation (1.42) is called grating equation. It gives the position of
principal maxima or condition to obtain maximum intensity.
QUE: Define diffraction. Give examples.
QUE: What is a diffraction grating? Define grating element.
QUE: What is grating element and grating equation.
QUE: What is the condition(formula) for obtaining maximum intensity?
QUE: Explain the difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.
QUE: Write short note on Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.

Theory:
 Let a plane wave front of monochromatic light of wavelength ‘λ’ be incident normally on
the grating MN (Fig.1.22).
 According to Huygens’ Principle, the points in the slits AB, CD …etc. acts as a source of
secondary wavelet which spread in all directions on the other side of the grating.

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Fig.1.22: Diffraction through a plane transmission grating

 Consider the secondary diffracted wavelets which make an angle ‘θ’ with the normal to
the grating.
 The path difference between the wavelets from one pair of corresponding points A and C
is CH = (a + b) sin θ.
 The point P1 will be bright, when,

(a + b) sin θ = n λ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 --------- (1.43)

 At the centre ‘O’ on the screen, wavelets moving in the direction of the incident rays will
produce maximum intensity. This is called zero order maximum.
 On either side of central maxima different orders of secondary maxima are formed at the
point P1, P2.
 In general, (a + b) sin θ = n λ is the condition for maximum intensity, where ‘n’ is an
integer, the order of the maximum intensity.
 From equation (1.43) we find that
𝑛λ
sin 𝜃 = ---------- (1.44)
𝑎+𝑏

or sin 𝜃 = 𝑁𝑛λ ---------- (1.45)

1
where 𝑁 = 𝑎+𝑏
, gives number of lines per unit width of the grating.

 Thus, using equation (1.45), we can find Principal maxima in a grating along direction θ,
where (a+b) is grating element, ’n’ is order of maxima. This equation is used
experimentally to determine wavelength of incident light using plane transmission
grating.
 For a given wavelength ‘λ’, the angle of diffraction is different for principal maxima of
different orders. If the number of lines in the grating are large, the maxima appear as
sharp and bright lines parallel to the rulings of grating and are termed as spectral lines.
 When white light is used, the diffraction pattern consists of a white central maximum and
on both sides continuous colored images are formed.

1.18.1.TO FIND THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ORDERS AVAILABLE WITH A

GRATING:

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 Engineering Physics

The principal maxima in a grating satisfy the condition given in equation (1.62)

(a + b) sin θ = n λ
(a+b) sin θ
∴n = λ
--------- (1.46)

So, the wavelength ′λ′ will decide the maximum number of the orders of diffraction for a given
grating.

The maximum angle of diffraction is 90o, hence the maximum possible order is given by
(a+b)
∴nmax. =
λ
for sin θ = 1 -------- (1.47)
For example, consider a grating having grating element which is less than thrice the wavelength of
the incident light, then,

(a +b) < 3λ
(a+b) (3λ)
∴ nmax. = λ
< λ
=3 -------- (1.48)

Therefore, only first two orders will be observed.

1.19. RESOLVING POWER OF THE DIFFRACTION GRATING:

The diffraction grating is most useful for measuring wavelengths accurately. Like the prism, the
diffraction grating can be used to disperse a spectrum into its wavelength components. Of the two
devices, the grating is the more precise if one wants to distinguish two closely spaced wavelengths
spectrum i.e., to separate the lines of nearly equal wavelengths and therefore it has resolving
capability.
Resolving power of the grating is defined as the ability of a grating to form separate diffraction
maxima of two wavelengths which are very close to each other.
For two nearly equal wavelengths λ 1 and λ 2, between which a grating can just barely distinguish,
the resolving power ‘R’ of the grating is defined as,
λ λ
R= = = nN ---------- (1.49)
λ2 − λ1 𝑑λ
λ1 + λ2
where λ = 2
is the mean value of the two wavelengths λ 1 and λ 2
dλ= λ2 − λ1
‘n’ is the order of maxima,
1
and ‘𝑁 = 𝑎+𝑏
’ are the total number of lines per unit width on grating.
QUE: Define Resolving power. Give its equation.
QUE: Define resolving power and write the expression for resolving power of the diffraction
grating.

1.20. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFRACTION:

Applications of diffraction are:

1] This phenomenon proves that light is a wave.
2] Diffraction spectra are useful in studying the structure of atoms and molecules. An instrument
called X-ray Diffractometer is used to produce diffraction pattern of known materials. This helps
to identify their crystal structure. It can be also used to identify the structure of new materials by
comparing diffraction pattern with that of known ones.

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3]Diffraction phenomenon also finds application in design of holographic gratings of high quality.

1.23. LIST OF FORMULAE

 Effective optical path difference between two reflected rays in a thin film :
𝜆
∆= 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − 2
𝜆
 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 , where n= 0, 1, 2--- (bright ring/condition for maxima)
 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆, where n= 0, 1, 2, -- (dark ring/ condition for minima)

using above formulae, thickness of thin film ‘t’ can be found out

WEDGE SHAPE THIN FILM

λ
 Fringe width 𝛽 = 2𝜇𝜃

λ
 Wedge angle 𝜃 =
2𝜇𝛽

NEWTON’S RINGS

 Diameter of dark rings, 𝐷𝑛 = 2√𝑛𝜆𝑅

∴ 𝐷𝑛2 = 4n λ R
𝐷𝑛2
 Radius of curvature of plano-convex lens 𝑅 =
4𝑛λ
D2n+p −D2n
 Wavelength of incident light λ = 4pR
ANTI -REFLECTION COATING:
 Minimum thickness of the film 
t min 
4 f

GRATING EQUATION (DIFFRACTION GRATING FORMULA):

 If a monochromatic light of wavelength λ is incident normally on a grating, the position
of principal maxima is given by,
d sin θ = nλ
or (a + b) sin θ = n λ
(a+b) sin θ
n= λ

The maximum angle of diffraction is 90o, hence the maximum possible order is given by
(a+b)
∴nmax. = for sin θ = 1
λ

RESOLVING POWER OF THE DIFFRACTION GRATING

λ λ
 The resolving power of the grating, R.P. = λ 2 − λ1
= dλ = nN
λ1 + λ2
where λ = 2
is the mean value of the two wavelengths λ1 and λ 2
and the smallest difference dλ= λ2 − λ1
1
𝑁= 𝑎+𝑏
= Total number of lines per unit width on grating, n = order of maxima.

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1.24. SOLVED NUMERICALS

1. A soap film of refractive index 1.33 and of thickness 1.5 × 10-4m is illuminated by white
light incident at an angle of 450.The light reflected by it is examined by a spectrometer in
which a dark band is found corresponding to a wavelength of 5 ×10-5m. Calculate the order
of interference of the dark band.
Ans: Given: µ=1.33
t = 1.5×10-4 m
∠i = 450
λ = 5×10-5 m
n=?
Solution:
sin 𝑖
To find ∠r, we use Snell’s law, 𝜇 = sin 𝑟
sin 𝑖
or 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = 𝜇
sin 450
= = 0.5316
1.33
−1
or r = sin (0.5316)
= 32.12°
Condition to obtain dark fringe is 2𝜇𝑡cos r = n λ

2𝜇𝑡cos r
∴𝑛= λ

2×1.33×1.5×10−4 cos 32.12°

= 5×10−5

= 6.8 ≈ 6
2. A water film of refractive index 1.33 in air is 3200 A0 thick. If it is illuminated with white
light at normal incidence, what colour will it appear to be in reflected light?

Ans: Given: µ=1.33

t =3200 A0
∠i = 900

Solution:
The condition for constructive interference in reflected light is given by
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
Since ∠i = 900, cos r = 1

4𝜇𝑡
Hence λn (max.) =
2𝑛+1
Substituting n = 0,1,2,3… in the condition of maxima, we get
4𝜇𝑡 4×1.33×3200
λ0 (max.) = = = 17024 Å
2𝑛+1 1
4𝜇𝑡 4×1.33×3200
λ1 (max.) = 2𝑛+1
= 3
= 5674 Å
4𝜇𝑡 4×1.33×3200
λ2 (max.) = 2𝑛+1
= 5
= 3404 Å

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 Engineering Physics

Among the above, λ1 maxima lie in the yellow – green region of visible region. So, when white
light is used to illuminate the film, the yellow-green component will be enhanced when viewed by
reflection.
3. A glass plate having parallel sides has thickness 4 x 10-4 mm and refractive index 1.5. If it
is illuminated normally by white light what wavelengths will be intensified in reflected beam
in visible spectrum?
Ans: Given: : t = 4 × 10-7m,
µ = 1.5,
∠i = 900
λ=?
Solution: The condition for constructive interference in reflected light is given by
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2
Since ∠i = 900, cos r = 1

4𝜇𝑡
Hence λn (max.) = 2𝑛+1
Substituting n = 0,1,2,3,4… in the condition of maxima, we get
4𝜇𝑡 4×1.5×4×10−7
λ0 (max.) = 2𝑛+1
= 1
= 24000 Å
4𝜇𝑡 4×1.5×4×10−7
λ1 (max.) = = = 8000 Å
2𝑛+1 3

4𝜇𝑡 4×1.5×4×10−7
λ2 (max.) = 2𝑛+1
= 5
= 4800 Å
4𝜇𝑡 4×1.5×4×10−7
λ3 (max.) = 2𝑛+1
= 7
= 3428 Å

Thus, the wavelengths corresponding to n =1 and n =2 are intensified in reflected beam in visible
spectrum.
4.A parallel beam of light of wavelength 5890A0 is incident on a glass plate of refractive
index 1.5 such that the angle of refraction is 600.Calculate the smallest thickness of the plate,
which will appear dark by reflection.
Ans: Given: λ = 5890A0
µ = 1.5
 = 600
t=?
𝑛𝜆
Solution: 𝑡= 2𝜇 cos 𝑟

1×5890×10−10
= 2×1.5 ×cos 60°

= 3.926 × 10−7 𝑚

5. A soap film of refractive index 1.33 is illuminated with light of different wavelengths at an
angle of 450. Destructive interference is observed for the wavelength 5890A0. Find the
thickness of the film.
Ans: Given: µ=1.33
∠i = 450
λ = 5890A0
t=?

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 Engineering Physics

sin 𝑖
Solution: To find ∠r, we use Snell’s law, 𝜇 = sin 𝑟
sin 𝑖
or 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 =
𝜇
sin 450
= 1.33
= 0.5316
−1
or r = sin (0.5316)
= 32.12°
Condition to obtain dark fringe is 2𝜇𝑡cos r = n λ
𝑛λ 1×5890×10−10
∴𝑡= =
2𝜇cos r 2×1.33×cos 32.12°
−7
= 2.614 × 10 m
6. A soap film of 5000Å thickness is viewed at angle of 35°to the normal. Find the
wavelengths of visible spectrum which will be absent from the reflected light. The refractive
index of the film is 1.33. (4M) (Summer-04)
Ans. Given: t=5000Å
∠i =35°
µ=1.33
Solution: Condition of destructive interference is 2 µ t cos r = n λ

sin 𝑖
By Snell’s law 𝜇 =
sin 𝑟
sin 𝑖 sin 35
∴ sin 𝑟 = =
𝜇 1.33

∴ 𝑟 = 25.54°
For first order, n = 1
λ1=2 µ t cos r
=2×1.33×5000Å× cos( 25.54° )
= 12000Å --------- (in IR range)
For second order, n = 2
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 12000Å
λ2 = 2
= 2
= 6000 Å -------- (in visible region)
For third order, n = 3
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 12000Å
λ3 = 3
= 3
= 4000 Å -------- (in visible region)
For fourth order, n = 4
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 12000Å
λ4 = = = 3000 Å -------- (in UV region)
4 4
Therefore, wavelengths λ2and λ3 will be absent in the visible spectrum.

7.A wedge shaped thin glass plate of refractive index 1.52 is used to observe fringes of equal
thickness. The fringe spacing is 1 mm and the wavelength of light used is 5893A 0.Calculate
the angle of the wedge in seconds of an arc.
Ans: Given: µ =1.52
β =1mm = 10-3 m
λ=5893A0 = 5893×10-10 m
=?
λ
Solution: Wedge angle 𝜃 = 2𝜇𝛽

5893×10−10 180
= 2×10−3 ×1.52
= 1.938 × 10−4 × 𝜋

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 Engineering Physics

= 0.0111°= 0.111× 3600 arc sec

= 39.96 arc sec
8. Fringes of equal thickness are observed in a thin glass wedge of RI 1.52. The fringe
spacing is 0.1 mm; wavelength of light is 5893 Ao. Calculate wedge angle. (3M)[Winter-14]
Ans: Given: µ = 1.52
β = 0.1 mm = 10-4 m
λ = 5893 A0= 5893 ×10-10 m.
𝜃=?

λ
Solution: Fringe width 𝛽 =
2𝜇𝜃
λ
Wedge angle 𝜃 =
2𝜇𝛽
5893×10−10
= 2×1.52×10−4
= 1.94×10-3rad
= 0.11°
9.When a wedge- shaped air film is viewed by a monochromatic source of light incident
normally, the interference fringes 0.4mm apart are observed. If the air space is filled with
water (μ=1.33) how far apart will the fringes be observed? (3M)[Summer-16&19]
Ans: Given: βair = 0.4mm
𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.33
βwater =?

λ
Solution: Fringe width, β =
2µθ
λ
βair = − − − (1) (as μ = 1 for air film)
2θ
λ
λ 2θ
βwater = = − − − (2)
2μwater θ μwater
λ
Substituting = βair from eqn. (1) in (2) we get
2θ
βair 0.4mm
βwater = = = 0.3m
μwater 1.33
10. A glass wedge of angle 0.01radian is illuminated by monochromatic light of 6000Å falling
normally on it. At what distance from the edge of the wedge will be tenth dark fringe
observed? (3M)[Summer-05]
Ans. Given: n=10,
Angle ‘θ’ = 0.01rad
λ = 6000Å = 6000x10-10m
Find distance of 10th dark ring from edge of wedge L= ?
λ
Solution: Fringe width 𝛽 = for air film µ=1
2𝜇𝜃
Distance L=10 𝛽
λ
=10 × 2𝜃
6000×10−10
=10× 2×0.01
= 3×10-4 m

11. In Newton’s ring experiment the diameter of 10th dark ring due to wavelength 6000 Å in
air is 0.5 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens. (3M)[Winter-16]
Ans. Given: Diameter of 10th dark ring, D10 = 0.5cm
λ = 6000Å = 6000×10-8 cm

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 Engineering Physics

Radius of curvature of plano-convex lens, R=?

Solution: 𝐷𝑛2 = 4n λ R
2
𝐷10 = 4× 10× λ× R
2
𝐷10 (0.5)2
or R = = = 104.16 cm = 1.04 m
4× 10× λ 4× 10×6000×10−8

12.In a Newton’s ring experiment the diameter of the 15th ring is 0.590 cm. and that of the 5th
ring is 0.336cm. If the radius of the Plano convex lens is 100cm calculate the wavelength of
the light used. (3M)[Summer -17]
Ans: Given: R = 100 cm = 100×10-2 m,
D15= 0.590 cm = 0.59 ×10-2 m,
D5 = 0.336 cm = 0.336×10-2 m,
(n+p)=15, n = 5, p =10
λ =?
D2n+p −D2n
Solution: λ=
4pR
[(0.59×10−2 )2 −(0.336×10−2 )2 ]m2
= 4×10×100×10−2 m
= 5.8801 × 10−7 m
=5880.1×10-10 m = 5880.1 Å
13.A glass microscope lens (µ=1.5) is coated with magnesium fluoride (µ=1.38) film to
increase the transmission of normally incident light λ=5800Ǻ0. What minimum film
thickness should be deposited on the lens? (3)[Winter-19]
Ans: Given: µg =1.5
µf =1.38
λ = 5800Ǻ
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. =?
λ
Solution: 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. =
4𝜇𝑓

5800Å
=
4 × 1.38
= 1051 Å

14.We wish to coat a flat slab of glass (µg=1.5) with a thinnest possible film of a transparent
material so that light of wavelength 600 nm incident normally is not reflected. We have two
materials to choose from M1 (µ1=1.25) and M2 (µ2=1.6). Which one should be the
appropriate? What will be the smallest possible thickness of the coating?

Ans: Given: µg=1.5

µ1=1.25
µ2 =1.6
λ= 600 nm = 600×10-9m.
𝜇𝑓 = ? , 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. =?

Solution: 𝜇𝑓 = √𝜇𝑔 = √1.55 = 1.22

The refractive index of the material to be used as the film must be closer to 1.22.
So, among M1 and M2, M1 is suitable for thin film coating and its thickness must be
λ
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. =
4𝜇𝑓
600 × 10−9
=
4 × 1.25

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 Engineering Physics

= 0.12 × 10−6 m = 0.12 μm

15.A material having an index of refraction of 1.33 is used to coat a piece of glass. What
should be the minimum thickness of the film in order to minimize reflected light at
wavelength of 500 nm? What should be the refractive index of the glass to get best effects?
Why?
Ans: Given: µf =1.33
λ = 500 nm = 500×10-9m.
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. =?
λ
Solution: 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. =
4𝜇𝑓
500 × 10−9
=
4 × 1.33
= 9.398 × 10−8 m

Since 𝜇𝑓 = √𝜇𝑔

𝜇𝑔 = 𝜇𝑓2 = (1.33)2 = 1.76

If the refractive index of the glass is equal to 1.76, then the thin film acts as a best anti
reflection coating.
16.A glass microscope lens is coated with magnesium fluoride (μ=1.38) film to increase the
transmission of normally incident light of wavelength 6800 Å. What is minimum film
thickness needed for optimum result? (2M)[Summer-11]
Ans: Given: λ=6800 Å
µf = 1.38
t min. = ?

λ
Solution: 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. =
4𝜇𝑓

6800Å
=
4 × 1.38
= 1231.88 Å

17. Find the thickness of water film with refractive index of 1.33 formed on a glass window
pane to act as non-reflecting film. Given λ=5500 Å. (2M)[Summer-13]
Ans: Given: : λ= 5500Å
µf = 1.33
tmin. = ?
λ 5500Å
Solution: 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. = = = 1033 Å
4𝜇𝑓 4×1.33
18. A glass microscope lens (μ = 1.5) is coated with magnesium fluoride (μ =1.30) film to
increase the transmission of normally incident light (λ = 5800 Å). What minimum film
thickness should be deposited on the lens? (3M)[Summer-14]
Ans: Given: λ= 5800 Å
µf = 1.3,
tmin. = ?

λ
Solution: 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛. = 4𝜇
𝑓

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 Engineering Physics

5800Å
= = 1051 Å
4 × 1.3

19.A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 450 nm passes through a long slit
of width0.2 mm. Find the angular divergence in which most of the light is diffracted.

Given: λ= 450 nm = 450 × 10-9 m

d = 0.2 mm = 0.2 × 10-3 m
θ=?
Solution: Most of the light is diffracted between the two first order minima.
Since d sin θ = λ
λ
sin θ =
𝑑
450 × 10−9
= 0.2 × 10−3
or θ = 2.25× 10-3 rad
The angular divergence = 2 θ = 4.5× 10-3 rad

20.A plane transmission grating has 6000 lines/cm. Calculate the highest order spectrum
which can be seen with a light of wavelengths 4000 A.

Ans: Given: λ= 4000 Å = 4000 × 10-8 cm

N = 6000 lines /cm
Highest value of order of spectrum ‘nmax.’ =?

1
Solution: Since (a + b)= grating element = 𝑁
1
(a + b) = 6000 = 1.66 × 10-4
For highest order, sin θ max = 1
The condition for obtaining maxima = (a+b) sin θ max = n max λ
(a+b) 1.66 × 10−4
∴ n max = λ
=
4000 × 10−8
= 4.16 ≈ 4
21. A plane transmission grating containing 15000 lines per inch is illuminated with light of
wavelength 5896Å Find the maximum orders that can be seen by grating.
Ans. Given: λ= 5896 Å = 5896 × 10-8 cm
N = 15000 lines per inch.
n max.=?
1
Solution: Since (a + b) = grating element =
𝑁
1
(a + b) = 15000/2.54 = 1.693 × 10-4 cm
The condition for obtaining maxima is, (a+b) sin 𝜃 = n λ
For highest order, θ = 90o
∴ (a+b) sin 90 = n max λ
(a+b) 1.693 × 10−4
∴ n max = λ
= 5896 × 10−8
= 2.87 ≈ 3

22.A parallel beam of monochromatic light is allowed to be incident normally on a plane

diffraction grating with 1250 rulings/cm and a second order spectral line is observed to be
deviated through 30°.Is this line visible? If sodium light is used, which order of diffraction
will be observed at same angle?

Ans: Given: N= 1250 rulings/cm

33
 Engineering Physics

θ = 30°, n = 2
λ=?
Also find order of diffraction 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥. for sodium light.

Solution: The condition for obtaining maxima = (a+b) sin θ max = n max λ
1
(a + b) = grating element =
𝑁
1 -4
(a + b) = 1250 = 8 × 10

(a+b)sinθ 8 ×10−4
λ= 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥.
= 2
× sin 300 = 2 × 10−4 cm
= 2000 nm.
Above wavelength lies in invisible region to the eye. Hence it is not visible.
For sodium source, λ =589.3 nm = 589.3 × 10−9 𝑚 =589.3 × 10−7 𝑚
(a+b)sinθ 8 ×10−4
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥. = 𝜆
= 589.3×10−7
× sin 300

= 6.78 ≈ 6

23.A monochromatic light with a wavelength of 2.5x10-7 m strikes a grating

containing 10,000 slits/cm. Determine the angular positions of the second-order bright line.

Ans: Given: : N= 10,000 slits/cm

n=2
λ = 2.5x 10-7 m
θ=?
1
Solution: (a + b) = = 1 × 10−4 cm = 1 × 10−6 m
10,000
Since (a+b) sin θ = nλ
𝑛𝜆
sin θ = (𝑎+𝑏)
2×2.5 ×10−7
= 1×10−6
= 0.5
∴ 𝜃 = 300
24. How many orders will be visible if the wavelength of the incident radiation is 5000Å and
the number of lines on the grating is 2620 in one inch.

Ans: Given: : λ= 5000 Å = 5000 × 10-8 cm

N = 2620 lines /inch
No.of visible orders = ?
Solution
1 2.54
(a + b) = 𝑁 = 2620 cm = 9.694 × 10−4 cm
Since (a+b) sin θ = n λ
For highest order, sin θ =1
(𝑎+𝑏) 9.694×10−4
∴𝑛= 𝜆
= 5000 × 10−8
= 19.38 ≈ 19

25. What is the minimum number of lines per cm in a 2.5 cm wide grating which will just
resolve the two sodium lines (5890 A and 5896 A) in the second order spectrum.

Ans: Given: D1= 5890Å,

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 Engineering Physics

D2= 5896Å,
Width of grating = 2.5 cm
Order of spectrum = 2
Number of lines per cm = ?

λ
Solution: R.P. = =nN
𝑑𝜆
λ 5893
or N = 𝑛𝑑𝜆 = 2×6
= 491

491
Number of lines per cm = = 196
2.5
26. A plane transmission grating of width 2.5 cm is found to just resolve the two sodium lines
(5890 Å and 5896 Å) in the second order spectrum. Calculate the grating element.

Ans: Given: λ1= 5890Å,

λ2= 5896Å,
Width of grating = 2.5 cm
Order of spectrum = 2
Grating element = (a+b) =?

λ
Solution: R.P. = 𝑑𝜆 = n N
5890 Å +5896Å
Mean wavelength λ = = 5893 Å
2
Smallest difference d λ = λ2 - λ1 = 5896 Å-5890 Å= 6 Å
λ 5893
or N = 𝑛𝑑𝜆 = 2×6
= 491 for 2.5 cm width of grating.
491
Number of lines per cm on grating = = 196
2.5
1
Grating element (a+b) = 196 = 5.102× 10-3

27.A grating has 2.5cm of the surface ruled with 5000lines/cm. i) What is the resolving power
of the grating in first, second and third order? ii) If another grating has 6000 lines/cm
compare the results. Give your conclusions.
Ans: (i) Given: Number of lines /cm = 5000
Width of grating = 2.5 cm
n = 1,2,3.
R.P. = ?
Solution: Total number of lines on grating ‘N’ = 2.5 × 5000 =12500
λ
R.P. = 𝑑𝜆 = n N
For n =1,R.P.= 1× 12500 = 12500
For n =2,R.P.= 2×12500 = 25000
For n =3,R.P.= 3× 12500 = 37500

(ii) Number of lines /cm = 6000

Total number of lines on grating ‘N’ = 2.5 × 6000 =15000
λ
Since R.P. = =nN
𝑑𝜆

For n =1,R.P.= 1× 15000 = 15000

For n =2, R.P.= 2×15000 = 30000
For n =3, R.P.= 3×15000 = 45000

35
 Engineering Physics

As the number of lines /cm is increased, the resolving power of grating increases.
28. For a grating of width 2 inches having 15000 lines/inch, find the smallest wavelength
separation that can be resolved in second order at the mean wavelength of 500 nm.

Ans: Given: Number of lines /inches = 15000

Width of grating = 2 inches
n=2
λ = 500 nm
dλ = ?

Solution: Total number of lines on grating ‘N’ = 2 x 15000 =30,000

λ
R.P. = 𝑑𝜆 = n N
λ
dλ =
nN

500
= 2×30000 = 0.0083 nm

29.A plane transmission grating had 15000 lines with grating element of 1.69x10 -4m.
Calculated maximum resolving power for which it can be used in the range of wavelengths
of 400 nm to 700 nm. Conclude your answer.

Ans: Given: N = 15000 lines

(a + b) = 1.69 × 10−4 m
Maximum resolving power = ?

λ
Solution: R.P. = 𝑑𝜆 = n N
Also (a+b) sin θ = nλ
For maximum resolving power, sin θ = 1
(𝑎+𝑏)
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥. = 𝜆
=
Maximum resolving power 𝑅. 𝑃.𝑚𝑎𝑥. = 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥. × 𝑁

For lower wavelength λ = 400 nm = 400× 10−9 m,

(𝑎+𝑏) 1.69 ×10−4

𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥. = 𝜆
= 400 ×10−9
= 4.22
≈4
Maximum resolving power 𝑅. 𝑃.𝑚𝑎𝑥. = 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥. × 𝑁 = 4 × 15000 = 60000

For higher wavelength λ = 700 nm = 700× 10−9 m,

(𝑎+𝑏) 1.69 ×10−4

𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥. = 𝜆
= 700 ×10−9 = 2.44
≈2
Maximum resolving power 𝑅. 𝑃.𝑚𝑎𝑥. = 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥. × 𝑁 = 2 × 15000 = 30000
Conclusion: Thus, for higher wavelengths, maximum order of diffraction as well as maximum
resolving power decreases for a given grating.

1.25. EXERCISE

36
 Engineering Physics

1. A 500nm thick oil film in air is illuminated by white light in the direction perpendicular to the
film. What wavelengths will be absent in the reflected light in the wavelength range 300-700nm?
(Take μ=1.46 for oil)
Ans: 486.6nm and 365nm
2. Calculate the thickness of a soap film that results constructive interference in reflected light, if the
film is illuminated with light of wavelength 6000A0. Refractive index of soap film is 1.46.
Ans: t min=1027A0
3. Light of wavelength 6000A0 falls normally on a thin wedge shaped film of refractive index 1.4,
forming fringes that are 2mm apart. Find the angle of wedge.
Ans: θ=1.071x10-4 rad
4. A glass wedge of angle 0.01 rad is illuminated by monochromatic light of 6000A 0 falling normally
on it. At what distance from the edge of the wedge will the 10th fringe be observed by reflected
light.
Ans:3x10-4m
5. Fringes of equal thickness are observed in thin glass wedge of refractive index 1.52. The fringe
spacing is 0.1 mm. Wavelength of light being 5893A0. Calculate wedge angle.
Ans: θ=1.93x10-3 radians
6. In Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of 20th dark ring changes from 1.5cm to 1.39 cm, when
a liquid is introduced between the lens and the glass plate. Calculate the refractive index of the
liquid.
Ans: µ=1.16
7. In Newton’s ring experiment the diameter of 10th dark ring due to wavelength 6000A0 in air is 0.5
cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens. (3M)[Winter-16]
Ans: R=1.04 m
8. In Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the nth ring and (n+14)th rings are 4.2 mm and 7
mm respectively. Radius of plano convex lens is 1m.Calculate the wavelength of light used.
Ans: λ=5600A0 (3M)[Winter-17]
9. In Newton's rings experiment, diameter of the 5th ring is 0.336 cm and the diameter of 15th ring is
0.590 cm. find the radius of curvature of plano-convex lens if the wavelength of light used is 5890
Å.
Ans.99.83Å (3M)[WINTER-15]
10. An engineer is interested in enhancing the transmission of light incident on a glass lens. Explain
how this can be achieved using the following thin films (i) MgF2 (µ=1.38) (ii) ZnS (µ=2.37)
Assume λ=5500A0 and µ for lens = 1.5.
Ans: As refractive index of MgF2 is closer to the refractive index of glass, it is suitable for
anti-reflection coating and its minimum thickness must be tmin= 9.16x10-8m
11. A thin film of cryolite (µ=1.35) is applied to a common lens. The coating is designed to reflect at
blue end of the visible spectrum and transmit wavelength at the near IR. What should be the
minimum thickness of the film to be given to the lens to transmit light at 8000Å?
Ans.1481Å (3M)[Summer-18]
12. A material having an index of refraction of 1.32 is used to coat a piece of glass. What should be
the minimum thickness of this film in order to minimize reflected light at a wavelength of 700
nm?
Ans.132.57 nm (3M)[Winter-18]
13. A glass microscope lens (μ = 1.5) is coated with magnesium fluoride (μ =1.30) film to increase the
transmission of normally incident light (λ = 5800 Å). What minimum film thickness should be
deposited on the lens?
Ans.1051Å (3M)[Winter-14]
14. Calculate the possible order of spectra with a plane- transmission grating having18,000 lines per
inch when light used is of wavelength 4500Å.
Ans. n = 3
15. A plane diffraction grating has 15000 lines/inch. Find the angles of separation of the 504.8 nm and
501.6 nm of the Helium source in the first order spectrum.
Ans.𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟕′

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16. A plane diffraction grating has 4000 lines/inch. Calculate angular separation of the 656 nm and
410 nm of the Hα and Hδ lines respectively in the second order spectrum.
Ans. 12.3°
17. Calculate the minimum width of grating having 2500 lines/cm that can resolve the sodium
doublets in third order.
Ans.0.13cm
18. A plane transmission grating has a total of 40000 lines with a grating element of 1.45 nm.
Calculate the maximum resolving power for which it can be used in the range of 550 nm
wavelength.
Ans. 80000
19. Calculate the least width of a plane transmission grating that has 500 lines/cm, which would just
resolve the two lines of the sodium doublets in second order spectra.
Ans. 0.98 cm

1.26. REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by interference of light?

2. What are the necessary conditions on the path difference and phase difference between
two waves that interfere (a) constructively(b) destructively?
3. What is thin film. Give examples.
4. Derive the condition for optical path difference for interference in thin parallel film in
reflected light.
5. Obtain the condition for maxima and minima due to interference of reflected light in thin
film of uniform thickness.
6. Write an expression for path difference in thin film of constant thickness. Obtain the
conditions for dark and bright fringes of interference pattern.
7. What is thin film? Obtain an expression for fringe width in wedge shaped thin film.
8. Obtain an expression for fringe width in wedge shaped thin film.
9. Why circular fringes are obtained in Newton’s rings experiment?
10. In Newton’s ring experiment, why:
(a)The plano-convex lens has large radius of curvature?
(b)The rings get closer away from the centre.
(c) Central fringe is dark in reflected light.
(d) Fringes are circular.
11. In Newton’s ring experiment why are the rings are crowded away from the centre?
12. Explain antireflection coating. Obtain the condition for minimum thickness of such a
coating.
13. Define diffraction. Give examples.
14. Explain the difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.
15. What is a diffraction grating? Define grating element.
16. What is a diffraction grating? Write Grating equation.
17. Define Resolving power and write the expression for resolving power of the diffraction
grating.

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