Continuation of Module 3

KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS

Kant’s corollary meaning of justice and fairness are the following:

(1) Justice involves external acts through which an individual may directly or indirectly influence
others.
(2) Justice does not affect the desires, wishes, or needs of others.
(3) Justice is concerned primarily with the nature of interpersonal relationships and not with their
substance.

The first two concepts of justice of Kant include the voluntary ideals of benevolence and
charity, while justice concerns whether or not we value the fair right of others to live their lives as
they see fit. The third concept of justice illustrates a situation, let say if Mr. A buys something
from a store, justice is served if the nature of the partnership is voluntary.

Module 4

What is Culture and How Does it Define Our Moral Behaviour?

After studying this module, you should be able to:

1. Demonstrate what culture is and how it influences moral development.
2. Apply the culture in a positive way and improve the Filipino character.
3. Discuss culture profoundly through analyzing the characteristics of Filipino culture.

According to Kohak (1984), culture is at the root of human alienation from the
environment.

Culture is derived from the Latin word, “cultus”, which means giving respect to the
sacredness of all. Originally, culture is not contrary to nature but is commonly accepted as a
human being's role in it.

Cole (2019) defined culture as a concept that refers to a broad and diverse collection of
often intangible areas of social life. According to sociologists, culture consists of ideals, beliefs,
language systems, communication, and behaviors that people have in common and that can be
used to describe them as a group.

Lederach, (1995) introduced culture as the collective knowledge and schemes

generated by a group of people to perceive, view, convey, and react to the social realities
around them.
 Zimmerman explicated (2017) culture as the characteristics and awareness of a specific
community of people, including language, religion, food, social behavior, etiquette, fashion,
music, and the arts.

THE INFLUENCES OF CULTURE IN MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Leano & Gubia-on (2018), Baring ( shared five points in how culture influences the moral
development of the people and these are the following:

1. Culture is always social and communal by which the relationship of the people
towards one another and their experience as people are the culture’s meadow.
2. The culture defines the normative principles and behaviors of society.
3. A culture, as best exemplified in the experience of the people, develops restrictions
and sets boundaries and limitations as they live and relate with one another.
4. As culture helps in generating the character and identity of its people, it also includes
their moral character.
5. The culture identifies the authorities or the governing individuals or groups.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FILIPINO CULTURE

1. The Filipino people are very resilient.

2. Filipinos take pride in their families.
3. Filipinos are very religious.
4. Filipinos are very respectful.
5. Filipinos help one another.
6. Filipinos values traditions and culture
7. Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebration.
8. Filipinos love art and architecture
9. The Filipinos are hospitable people.

WEAKNESSES OF FILIPINO CHARACTER

1. Extreme Personalism
2. Extreme Family Centeredness
3. Lack of Discipline
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative
5. Colonial Mentality
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome
7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection
Module 5: On Cultural Relativism

After studying this module, you should be able to:

1. Explain cultural relativism in different views.
2. Discuss profoundly the advantages and disadvantages of cultural relativism.

DEFINITION OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Cultural relativism means that we do not judge a society by our own criteria of what is
right or wrong, odd or natural. Rather, we will make an effort to understand the cultural traditions
of other communities in their own cultural context.

Cultural relativism is the desire to consider a culture on its own terms and not to make
conclusions based on the norms of one's own community.

The concept of cultural relativism also means that any opinion on ethics is subject to the
perspective of each person within their particular culture.

The definitions of cultural relativism stated above are summarized to the following:

1. In cultural relativism, no one can judge a society by their standards in the principle of right or
wrong, eccentric or natural.
2. People must understand other societies’ cultures.
3. In cultural relativism, the aim is to strengthen our knowledge and interpretation of the
practices and cultural traditions that are not part of our culture and that are not uncommon to
other cultures.
4. Cultural relativism is a moral theory that claims the idea of no objective universal moral rules
that would apply to every culture and it varies depending on the culture of the society.

PROS OR ADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

1. It creates learning opportunities that could make humanity stronger.

2. It eliminates the concept of separate, but equal.
3. It creates a system of niche expertise.
4. It encourages respect.

THE CONS OR DISADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

1. There will be actions taken that would be defined by some as “violent,” “unsafe,” or “wrong.”
2. It is based on the concept that people are perfect.
3. It creates a personal bias.
4. It eliminates the idea that reform or change can be a good thing.
 Knowing the advantages or pros and disadvantages or cons of cultural relativism, we
able to balance the cultures of the societies despite the differences. From the very beginning
there is already a conflict of cultures in societies because it varies from each other, However
from that differences, we can adjust, change our perspectives and learn from the strengths and
weaknesses of each culture to improve ourselves.

Module 6: On Universal Values

This module seeks to analyze the concept of universal values in several aspects such as
power, achievement, benevolence, tradition, universalism, etc. It includes as well the basic
universal human values and the universal values under the United Nations Charter. Moreover,
human dignity will be tackled for a better understanding of having it.

Meaning of Universal Value

The word "value" means something that a person or a group believes has a value that
merits being sought, promoted, or privileged. This can be a thing (money, food, art), a state of
mind (peace, protection, certainty), or a behavior that results from those things or states of mind
(protecting innocent people, telling the truth, being creative).

Universal values, however, can be be unerstood in two ways. First, it could be that
something has universal value because everyone finds it important. Second, it could have
universal value when all people have reason to believe it has value.

According to the Didactic Encyclopedia (2015), universal value is a concept that it is not
obvious to define because a principle is connected with morality or ethics. It is difficult to
transpose or apply to the level of the group. In other words, all people have certain values that
come from within them and direct their actions. Because human beings do not think in the same
way, values can differ from person to person. Universal values, however, need to be socially
expressed.

SCHWARTS CONCEPT OF UNIVERSAL VALUES

S. H. Schwartz, along with several colleagues in the field of psychology, carried out
empirical research analyzing whether there are universal values and what those values are.
Schwartz described 'values' as 'conceptions of what is important that affect the way people
choose action and evaluate events.' (Sen, 1999) Schwartz's results from a series of studies that
included surveys of more than 25,000 people in 44 countries with a wide range of different
cultural types suggest that there are fifty-six specific universal values and ten types of universal
value. Schwartz's ten types of universal value are: power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation,
self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security.

Below are each of the value types, with the specific related values alongside:
1. Power: authority; leadership; dominance, social power, wealth
 2. Achievement: success; capability; ambition; influence; intelligence; self-respet.
3. Hedonism: pleasure; enjoying life
4. Stimulation: daring activities; varied life; exciting life

5. Self-direction: creativity; freedom; independence; curiosity; choosing your own goals

6. Universalism: broadmindedness; wisdom; social justice; equality; a world at peace; a
world of beauty; unity with nature; protecting the environment; inner harmony
7. Benevolence: helpfulness; honesty; forgiveness; loyalty; responsibility; friendship
8. Tradition: accepting one's portion in life; humility; devoutness; respect for tradition;
moderation
9. Conformity: self-discipline; obedience
10. Security: cleanliness; family security; national security; stability of social order;
reciprocation of favours; health; sense of belonging

Schwartz also tested an eleventh possible universal value, 'spirituality', or 'the goal of
finding meaning in life', but found that it does not seem to be recognised in all cultures.

BASIC UNIVERSAL HUMAN VALUES

(1) Happiness
(2) Peace
(3) Freedom
(4) Safety
(5) Intelligence
(6) Respect
(7) Equality
(8) Justice
(9) Nature
(10) Health

THE HUMAN DIGNITY

Dignity is the state or quality of being worthy of honor or respect. "A man of dignity and
unbending principle" is an example. It refers to bearing, conduct, or speech indicative of self
respect or appreciation of the formality or gravity of an occasion or situation. It is the importance
and value that a person has that makes other people respect them or makes them respect
themselves. Dignity is earned and cannot be taken away from anyone. It must be preserved so
that the respect of others is maintained. Any act or action to be done by an individual will be
reflected in his or her personality. Only one big mistake can ruin a good reputation for anyone.
People must be very careful of his or her actions and words to be said.
MODULE 7 THE FILIPINO WAY

This module discusses the different Filipino values and traits which could explain the
moral characters of Filipinos. It also discusses the strengths and weaknesses of each values
and traits and to what circumstances these are sometimes applied by individuals to attain
smooth interpersonal relationships with other people.

Filipino Moral Characters: Strengths and Weaknesses Filipino cultural morality especially
that which concerns social ethics, centers on ideally having a “smooth interpersonal relationship
(SIR) with others (De Guzman et al. 2017). The definition of “smooth interpersonal relationship”
in Philippine culture is principally supported by and anchored on the following Filipino values
and Filipino traits and values (De Guzman et al. 2017 and Arcega et al., 2018).

Filipino Values
Values are those aspects in life that include customs, traditions, etc., which the people
regard as necessary and important in their dealings with one another (Agoncillo et al., 2010).
One of the Filipino values is ‘pakikisama’ or sense of togetherness. It refers to doing somebody
a good deed, such as helping a relative or neighbor build a house without asking for
compensation, or helping someone looking for a job and so on (Agoncillo et al., 2010). It is not
only practiced in the neighborhood but also at work and school.

Filipino Traits
Trait is a distinguishing feature or character of a person or a group of people (Agoncillo
et al., 2010). One of the common traits among Filipinos is hospitality or keeping the strangers
feel warm and welcome. Filipinos are known by other nations through this trait because they
really make an effort to welcome their guests. It is not only applied to foreigners but it also
applies to everybody. New kitchen utensils, bed sheets and pillow covers, bath towels etc., are
used by their guests. They also cook delicious foods for them. They want their guests happy,
contented and comfortable (Arcega et al., 2018). This trait however, makes Filipinos prone to
being abused or maltreated (De Guzman et al., 2017).

MODULE 8 HOW IS MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPED?

This module discusses how our moral character is developed. This was further explained
using three approaches such as virtuous, dispositions, and circular relations of acts and
character. This module teaches students to be virtuous, to have relatively stable, fixed and
reliable dispositions of action, and to practice moderation. Lastly, it teaches students to know
one’s intention and to know the effect of action on their character and to be morally responsible
for their deeds.
Moral Character and its Development
Moral character refers to the existence or lack of virtues such as integrity, courage,
fortitude, honesty, and loyalty. To say that a certain person has a good moral character means
that he/she is a good person and a good citizen with a sound moral compass (De Guzman et
al., 2017). It can be conceptualized as an individual’s disposition to think, feel, and behave in an
ethical versus unethical manner, or as the subset of individual differences relevant to morality
(Cohen & Carnegie, 2014).

Development of moral character can be explained by the following approaches:

● virtues,
● disposition, and
● circular relations of acts and character, and
● theoretical perspectives (De Guzman et al., 2017 and philonotes.com).

Moral Character and Virtues Etymologically, the term “character” comes from the ancient
Greek term charaktêr, which initially referred to the mark impressed upon a coin. The term
charaktêr later came to refer more generally to any distinctive feature by which one thing is
distinguished from others. Along this general line, in contemporary usage character often refers
to a set of qualities or characteristics that can be used to differentiate between persons.

One way to explain character development is through the virtue ethics approach. Virtue
ethics represents the concept that an individual's actions are based upon inner moral virtue.

Virtue is a central concept in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics wherein there are two
distinct of human excellences,
(1) excellences of thoughts and
(2) excellences of character

Aristotle considered goodness of character as a product of the practice of virtuous

behavior. This means that for Aristotle, virtuous acts are not the end results of a good character.
Hence, virtue can be viewed as a fruit of intelligent pursuit.

But how can a person be virtuous? It is important to note that a virtuous behavior for
Aristotle means practicing moderation, that is, avoiding both excess and deficiency. Aristotle
calls this the doctrine of the mean. This “doctrine of the mean” is a principle that suggests that
a moral behavior is one that is in the middle of two extremes.

Moral Character as Dispositions

Dispositions are particular kinds of properties or characteristics that objects can possess.

Moral character traits are those dispositions of character for which it is appropriate to
hold agents morally responsible. A trait for which the agent is deserving of a positive reactive
attitude, such as praise or gratitude, is a virtue, and a vice is a trait for which the agent is
deserving of a negative reactive attitude, such as resentment or blame. Moral character traits
are relatively stable, fixed and reliable dispositions of action and affect that ought to be rationally
informed.

The Circular Relation of Acts and Character

Three aspects of action relevant to this are repetition of action and its effect on the
person, the type of action, and intention and responsibility (Mitchell, 2015).

A. Repetition of Action and its Effect on the Person

● Actions can be repetitive or automatic in (at least) three different ways: by habit,
by education, and by habitus (Mitchell, 2015).

B. The Type of Action

● Because human beings are body/soul unities, actions of the body are actions of
the self.

THE SOUL
● Happiness is an activity of the soul
● The soul for Aristotle is the part of a human being that animates the body.
● Body and Soul are inseparable

It is composed of:

Rational elements
● Speculative (responsible for knowledge)
Concerned with pure thought and essentially the base of contemplation

● Practical (responsible for choice and action)

Is in charge of action and the practical determination of the proper means
to attain a specific end

Irrational elements

Vegetative
● In charge of the nutrition and growth of the human being
● Takes care of all the involuntary functions of the body, from
breathing, digestion and the like
● Aristotle believes that this part is not relevant in discussions
regarding happiness or virtue

Appetitive
● Shares in the rational element in the soul.
● It cannot reason but it does share in the rational element in that it can be influenced by it.
*** It is therefore important to remember that there is a part of the soul that calls for reason’s
governance. Giving in to raw and unchecked appetites is oftentimes the reason a person
commits immoral acts.

*** Giving in to passions keeps a person from flourishing and derails him/her from his/her true
end as a person.

*** Having desires is not bad. However, people who aim to be happy must be responsible for
such desires and keep them in check.

*** For Aristotle, moral virtue is necessary in making sure that desires do not control the
behaviour.

C. Intention and Responsibility

Two important aspects of the revelatory nature of action are responsibility and
intention. Human beings own their actions and the consequences of them. This even applies to
actions that are accidental rather than willed and chosen. The will is the rational power of
human beings to act. It is the ability to choose what is good (or what one thinks is good) directed
by reason (Aquinas, 1948 and Wojtyla, 1979).

Responsibility and intention are rooted in the will, which is the source of the self
possession and self-governance of human beings. Self-possession is different from
possession of an object. One can own or hold an object, such as a rock, and therefore have
possession of it. But one owns and holds oneself internally in a way one cannot with a rock. We
are conscious of the rock as something that is external, but we are conscious of ourselves from
the inside. We are both the object of our consciousness and the subject (Wrathall, 2005).

One can be prevented from doing something by external forces, but carrying through
with an action has an element of the voluntary, of willing to do it and therefore cannot be forced.

Another way the will can be hindered is by lack of knowledge. One may attempt to
drive across a flooded bridge thinking the water is low enough to get through but then get stuck,
because it was really two feet above the bridge. But if one knows that the water is that high, one
would not drive across it or will to drive across it, because one knows the car will stall in the
middle (Aristotle, n.d., Aquinas, 1993 and Joh Paul I Pope, 1993).

According to Mitchell (2015), the human being is self-governing in that he can carry
out a human action or not carry it out as he wills.