CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

Main contents

• Data and Information

• Representation of Data
• Data Type
• Data Structure
• Object-Oriented Programming

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Data and Information

• Data is the basic entity or fact that is used in a

calculation or manipulation process.
• Data is commonly processed by some stages.
• Unprocessed data or raw data is a collection of
numbers, characters.
• Raw data may be considered as an input of a stage
and processed data is the output of the stage.

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Data and Information

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Data and Information

• Data are raw facts without context, whereas

Information is data with context.
• Data are an abstraction of Information
in a problem-solving system.
• Data require interpretation to become an
Information.

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How does a program work?

Algorithms

Data

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Representation of Data

• Almost all the high-level languages allow data to

be represented in computer memory of mainly two
types:
 Numerical data
 Alphanumerical data

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Representation of Data
• Numerical data are classified into two types:
 Integer
 Floating-point

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Representation of Data

Alphanumerical data are classified into two types:

- Character: alphabets, digits, special characters and white
spaces
- String: a sequence of characters may consist of any number
and any combination of characters. The characters may be
alphabets, digits, special characters and white spaces.

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Data types
 A data type refers to the type of data that variables
hold.
 The C language supports three classes of data
types:
- Primary or Basic data types
- Derived data types
- User-defined data types

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Data types

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Data types - Example

• Example of Integer:
4, 6, -12, …
• Example of Array:
A list of values of interest in each month of this
year.
• Example of Struct:
Information of a student (name, age, class,
program, GPA)
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About data structures and algorithms

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About data structures and algorithms

• Data structures and algorithms are two essential

concepts in computer science.
• Data structures are the objects generated to
organize, store and retrieve data.
• Algorithms are a set of instructions to perform
specific task by using the data structures

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About data structures and algorithms

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Data Structure
• Data Structure is the representation of the logical
relationship between individual elements of data.
• Data Structure is defined as a mathematical or
logical model of organizing the data items into
computer memory to use efficiently.
• Data Structure refers to the study of data and
representation of data objects within the program.

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Data Structure - Purposes

• Organizing the data: How data items are organized
in the main memory.
• Accessing methods: How data items can be
accessed.
• Specifying the degree of associativity: How data
items are interrelated.
• Processing alternatives for data: How many
different ways are there in which these data
items can be processed.
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Classifications of Data Structure

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Primitive data structure

• Primitive data structure is a fundamental type of

data structure.
• Primitive data structure allows you to store only
single data type values.
• Primitive data structure can be manipulated or
operated by the machine instructions.

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Non-primitive data structure

• A type of data structure stores the data of different
types in a single entity.
• Cannot be manipulated or operated by the machine
instructions.
• A group of homogeneous or heterogeneous data
items.
• Non-primitive data structures are derived from the
primitive data structure.
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Non-primitive data structure

Every data item
attaches to many
other data items in
specific ways to
reflect relationships

Every data item

is related to its
previous and
next data items

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Static and Dynamic data structure

• Static data structure: once
memory space is allocated
it cannot be extended.
• Dynamic Data Structure is
another kind of data
structure, which can be
extended or shrink during
the execution.
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Operations can be performed on data structure

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Applications of Data Structure

Note: Different kinds of data structures are suitable for different kinds of
application

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Example of Data Structure and algorithm

Data structure: Select a data structure to store the

amount of money that you spent each month last year.
Algorithm: Find the max amount and the average
amount that you’ve spent.

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Object-oriented programming (OOP)

• Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a computer

programming model that organizes software design
around data, or objects, rather than functions and logic.
• An object is a data structure, combined with the
operations pertinent to that structure.
• Most object-oriented languages (OOLs) define objects
through the use of a class.

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Object-oriented programming (OOP)

• Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a computer

programming model that organizes software design
around data, or objects, rather than functions and logic.
• An object is a data structure, combined with the
operations pertinent to that structure.
• Most object-oriented languages (OOLs) define objects
through the use of a class.

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Object-oriented programming (OOP)
Class

Objects

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Main Principles of OOP

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Abstract Data Types
• Proper planning is essential to successful
implementation of programs
• Typical design methodologies focus on developing
models of solutions before implementing them
• These models emphasize structure and function of the
algorithms used
• Initially our attention is on what needs to be done, not
how it is done

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Abstract Data Types (cont.)
• So we define program behavior in terms of operations to be
performed on data
• The details will emerge as we refine the definitions of the
operations
• Only then will implementation of those operations be carried
out
• As part of this implementation, we must choose appropriate
data structures
• A data structure is a technique of storing and organizing data
so it can be used efficiently
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Abstract Data Types (continued)
• In our program models, data structures are described by
abstract data types (ADTs)
• An Abstract Data Type (ADT) describes the data
objects, which constitute the data structure and the
fundamental operations supported on them.
• ADTs are defined indirectly, in terms of operations to be
performed rather than in terms of its inner structure
• ADTs can then be implemented through class definitions in
an object-oriented language.

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Abstract Data Types: Examples
• A stack is a last-in first-out (LIFO) linear structure
where items can only be added and removed from one
end
• Operations on this stack ADT might include:
◦ PUSH – add an item to the stack
◦ POP – remove the item at the top of the stack
◦ TOP – return the value of the item at the top of the stack
◦ EMPTY – determine if the stack is empty
◦ CREATE – create a new empty stack PUSH POP

A Simple Stack Representation

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Abstract Data Types: stacks

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Data encapsulation
• A class is a template which implements the ADT defining the objects
that the class creates.
• Within a class, the data elements are called data members, and
member functions.
• The combination of data members and methods in a class is referred
to as data encapsulation

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Data encapsulation
• This approach has several advantages:
• The strong link between data and operations better mimics real-world
behavior, on which program models are based
• Errors in implementation are confined to the methods of a particular class in
which they occur, making them easier to detect and correct
• Details of the implementation of the object can be hidden from other objects
to prevent side effects from occurring.

• This last point illustrates the principle of information-hiding.

• Our use of an object is based on what it does for us, not how it
goes about doing it.
• So, an object can be looked at as a black box, with specific
user-available methods and a well-defined behavior.

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Inheritance

• Inheritance is a technique of reusing existing class

definitions to derive new classes
• These new classes (called derived classes or subclasses or
child classes) can inherit the attributes and behavior of the
pre-existing classes (called base classes or super classes or
parent classes)
• This relationship of classes through inheritance forms a
hierarchy, which can be diagrammed

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 Inheritance

• Information hiding can be extended through this hierarchy by the

access the base class allows the derived class(es)
• Derived classes can then add, delete, & modify methods and
data members in their own definitions (known as overriding).
• The amount of access, and level of modifications, are controlled
by specifying public, protected, or private in the derived class
header

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 Inheritance
The amount of access, and level of modifications, are controlled
by specifying public, protected, or private in the derived class
header. derived class
(public inheritance)
Base
class
derived class
(protected inheritance)

derived class
(private inheritance)
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Polymorphism
Polymorphism is the ability, in many OOLs, to create objects of
different types that respond to method calls having the same
name
They differ in that they respond according to type-specific
behavior
Which method is called depends on the time at which the
decision is made about the call
This decision is referred to as binding, and can occur in
different ways
◦ Static binding determines the function call at compile time
◦ Dynamic binding delays the decision until run time

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Polymorphism

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The Standard Template Library (STL)
 While C++ is a powerful language in its own right, recent
additions have added even more capabilities
 Of these, perhaps the most influential is the Standard Template
Library (STL)
 It provides three generic entities: containers, iterators, and
algorithms, and a set of classes that overload the function
operator called function objects
 It also has a ready-made set of common classes for C++, such
as containers and associative arrays
 These can be used with any built-in type and with any user-
defined type that supports some elementary operations

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The Standard Template Library (cont.)
Containers
◦ Designed to hold objects of the same type
◦ Containers are implemented as template classes whose
methods specify operations on the data in the structures as
well as the structures themselves
◦ A number of these methods are common to all containers,
while some are more specific to the container they are
defined in
◦ The data stored in containers can be of any type and must
supply some basic methods and operations
◦ This is especially necessary if pointers are involved

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Containers in C++

 Vector
 List
 Queue (Priority Queue)
 Deque
 Stack
 Map/Multimap
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 Set/MultiSet
The Standard Template Library (cont.)
Iterators
◦ An iterator is an object that accesses the elements of a
container
◦ The STL implements five types of iterators
◦ Input iterators, which can read a sequence of values
◦ Output iterators, which can write a sequence of values
◦ Forward iterators, which can be read, written to, or moved forward
◦ Bidirectional iterators, which behave like forward iterators but can also move backwards
◦ Random iterators that can move freely in any direction at one time

◦ Essentially, an iterator is a generalized pointer, and can be

dereferenced and manipulated like a pointer
◦ These capabilities make iterators a major feature that allows
the generality of the STL

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The Standard Template Library (cont.)
Algorithms
◦ About 70 generic functions, known as algorithms, are
provided in the STL
◦ These perform operations such as searching and sorting
◦ Each is implemented to require a certain level of iterator
(and therefore will work on any container that provides an
interface by iterators)
◦ Algorithms are in addition to the methods provided by
containers, but some algorithms are implemented as
member functions for efficiency

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Algorithms in C++
 max_element(), max_element(iterl, iter2)
 min_element(), min_element(iterl, iter2)
 sort(), sort(iterl, iter2)
 random_shuffle() random_shuffle(iterl, iter2)
 binary_search()
 for_each()
 find()

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 Data Structures and OOP
• The notion of a data type is an abstraction that allows us to
hide the details of how the type is implemented
• To use effectively, we concern ourselves with the
operations that can be performed on it that make it
distinctive
• While a given programming language may incorporate
some data types, the user may have to define their own
• These new types typically have a distinct organization that
can be exploited to define the type’s behavior
• The task then is to study the structure of these types in
terms of time and space requirements so we can determine
their usefulness
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 Data Structures and OOP (continued)

• This is the opposite of OOP, where we focus on

behavior and try to match the data types to the
desired operations efficiently
• We can look at the field of data structures as a tool
building effort that focuses on creating efficient
objects that can be incorporated into programs
• From this perspective, classes are defined in terms of
the mechanisms of the class, typically hidden from
the user

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 Data Structures and OOP (continued)

• By using the features of OOP, the classes can be designed and

modified behind the protections afforded by principles of
encapsulation and data hiding
• These protections ensure that the tools that are created are
used only in the way that is allowed by the public interface of
the class

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 Summary
• Data is the basic entity or fact that is used in the
calculation or manipulation process.
• Data are raw facts without context, whereas information
is data with context.
• Data Structure is defined as a mathematical or logical
model of the particular organization of data items in
computer memory so that it can be used efficiently.
• An Abstract Data Type (ADT) describes the data objects,
which constitute the data structure, and the fundamental
operations supported on them.
• The main principles in OOP include Abstraction,
encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism
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