CRIMINOLOGICAL

RESEARCH 1 and 2
CHILDE MI AMOR B. SALES
Top 6, FEB. 2024 CLE
CRIMINOLOGY 20% 100
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 2% 10
THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION 2% 10
HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY 3% 15
PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT AND ETHICAL
STANDARDS 3% 15

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY AND JUVENILE JUSTICE 3% 15

DISPUTE RESOLUTION AND CRISIS/ INCIDENT
3% 15
MANAGEMENT
CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH 1&2 4% 20
Recall and explicate the use of the different types, kinds,
and classification of research, and its methodologies
including the parts of a Thesis/Research/Scientific
Article.

Explain or apply the rules adopted in writing technical

papers under the APA - American Psychological
Association, under the following but not limited to:
Basic Formatting of Thesis/Research Paper; Verb, Tone,
Punctuations, Rules in writing Numbers, Tables, and
Figures; Quotation and Paraphrasing, Citations and
Reference.
Recall and apply the DOs and DONTs of the Ethical
issues in research writing.
Apply the rules in developing a problem, collect and
gathering of primary and secondary data sources. and
data collection technique
Understand the research design, Research Framework,
Statement of the Problem, Hypothesis, application, and
relevance of Literatures and Related studies, Research
Designs, Instrument or data gathering tools, sampling
techniques and applicable statistical tools.
NEW TOS:
Discuss the different types of research methodologies
applicable in criminological studies: 1.1. Descriptive
Studies; 1.1. Correlation studies 1.2. Phenomenological
studies 1.3. Case Studies

Utilize the suitable research design, instruments, sampling

techniques, validity and reliability and relevant descriptive
statistical tools in a criminology research paper.
Implement the process of research problem
identification and definition, hypothesis formulation,
research framework, and literature review within the
context of criminological studies.

Apply the guidelines in preparing an ethical

consideration for a research paper.

Utilize the analysis and interpretation of data derived

from the study's results.
What is a research that investigates
relationships between factors or variables

a) Intervention research
b) Correlation research
c) Extensive research
d) Explanatory research
What is a research that investigates
relationships between factors or variables

a) Intervention research
b) Correlation research
c) Extensive research
d) Explanatory research
This format of thesis writing is most commonly
used to cite sources within the social sciences.

a. HARVARD
b. Modern Language Association (MLA)
c. American Psychological Association (APA)
d. Nota
 RESEARCH
• Derived from the French word
“recerchier” or “recerche” which means
to go about seeking or to search.
• The prefix “re” is added means again, so
research means to search again.
 WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Research is a systematic, careful and
detailed investigation into a specific
problem, concern, or issue using
scientific methods in order to
establish facts and reach new
conclusions.
RESEARCH

• Research paper shares research findings,

analysis, and insights with the wider academic

community.

• Research paper can be created with existing

research findings or proving perspectives.

THESIS
• A thesis can simply imply a summary of the research
findings you have been working on, all through the
Master’s and Doctorate.
• This serves as a project that showcases students’ abilities
and skills acquired throughout the program it provides
information on their unique research, argument, and
hypothesis.
• Also, it supports and proves research based on evidence
and relevant resources.
• Typically around 80-100 pages.
DISSERTATION
• A dissertation is often a project worked on by doctorate
students.
• It requires comprehensive and in-depth research.
• It signifies the highest level of research and contributes to the
field of study.
• It often demands extensive research that finds a solution to a
certain problem or a question, data collection, interpretation,
and an extensive literature review. They must be unique and
original with the ability to produce new insights.
• Consisting of 300 to 500 pages.
Thesis and Dissertation test the ability of students to conduct
an independent research project and requires originality to
solve unique problems that are never touched before.

Another crucial difference we could find with the comparison of

Research Paper vs Thesis vs Dissertation is that dissertation
and thesis demand more originality but a research paper can
b e created w i th exi sti n g research fi n d i n g s o r p r o v i n g
perspectives.

The major differences when it comes to dissertation vs thesis

vs research articles it is in the length and primarily the
originality of the research and the process of review.
 CRIMINOLOGY
• Body of knowledge regarding crime as a social
phenomenon.

CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH
• Involves the nature and concept of criminological
research (crime as a social phenomenon) and the
application of appropriate statistical tools in the
analysis and interpretation of research data.
 8 FOCUS CRIMES
1. Murder
2. Homicide
3. Physical Injury
4. Rape
5. Theft
6. Robbery
7. Carnapping of vehicles
8. Carnapping of motorcycles
PURE RESEARCH is conducted without a specific goal
in mind; is conducted with the objective of
contributing to existing knowledge by gathering
information

APPLIED RESEARCH conducted with the aim of

solving a problem.

CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH is an Applied

Research in Sociology
CHARACTERISTICS
OF RESEARCH
RESEARCH IS CYCLICAL
• It involves a process with ongoing series of events and action.

RESEARCH IS COLLABORATIVE
• It requires collaboration and extensive participation by the
researcher and the clients.

RESEARCH IS EMPIRICAL
• It is guided by scientific experimentation and
evidences
•
RESEARCH IS CHALLENGING AND COMPLEX
• It requires time, patience, and sound planning,
communication, and implementation skills.

RESEARCH IS PROBLEM-CENTERED, CLIENT-CENTERED

AND ACTION-CENTERED
• It involves client system in a diagnostic, active learning ,
problem determination and problem solving.
RESEARCH IS REFLECTIVE
• It requires critical reflection on what has happened using
observation.

RESEARCH IS SYSTEMATIC
• It involves step-by-step process and a plan which
desribes what data is to becollected, when, how and how
often.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
a. INTERVENTION RESEARCH
• Includes creating, designing or discovering a
device, method, process, that HAS NOT existed
before.
b. EXTENSIVE RESEARCH
• Includes descriptive and inferential statistics
along with numerical analysis, practical, concrete
and large samples are taken.
c. CORRELATION RESEARCH
• Reflects the strength and/or direction of the
relationship between two or variables

d. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
• Attempts to collect quantifiable information
for statistical analysis.

e. EXPLANATORY RESEARCH
• Focuses on explaining the aspects study in a
detailed manner.
This type of research attempts to explain
possible factors related to problems which have
been observed in a descriptive study.

a) Intervention research
b) Correlation research
c) Extensive research
d) Explanatory research
Research Format
• Typewritten – (Font size 12 Times New Roman)
• A4 size, portrait with margins 1.25” top and left,
and 1” right and bottom.
• Page number for the research manuscript is
located at the upper right hand corner of the page
in Arabic format
• Double-spaced to allow corrections/additions
TITLE
It should be concise and descriptive. An
effective title not only pricks the reader's
interest, but also predisposes the reader
favorably towards the proposal. A good title is
no longer than 15 words.
PAGINATION
Begin numbering on the Title Page with the Roman numeral "i",
although the actual number does not appear. The second page
number is "ii" and this number should be shown at the bottom,
center of the page. Lower case Roman numerals should be used
consistently and consecutively for all the preface pages, (i.e. the
pages that precede the main body of the text).
Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3 etc.) are used from the first page of the
main body of the text, at the start of the first chapter. Again, each
number should be shown at the upper right corner of the page. It
is easiest to use the ―footer‖ function of your word processing
software for placing page numbers.
ABSTRACT
• An abstract should reveal in concise terms what you
studied and why, how you went about it, what you found,
and the relevance of those findings.
• Type the abstract itself as a single paragraph without
paragraph indentation.
• The maximum length should be 200-250 words.
• Keywords follow the abstract.

KEYWORDS
• Identify words/phrases which are central to the work but are
not reflected in the title
• Not more than ten words/phrases
RESEARCH/ THESIS FORMATS

1)GERMANIC RESEARCH FORMAT

2)IMRAD RESEARCH FORMAT

 GERMANIC
RESEARCH FORMAT
Chapter I. The Problem and Its Background
• Introduction/ Background of the Study
• Statement of the Problem
• Scope and Delimitation of the Study
• Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework
• Research Paradigm
• Hypothesis
• Significance of the Study
• Definition of Terms
Chapter II. Review of Related Literature and Studies
• Review of Related Literature
ØForeign Literature
ØLocal Literature
• Review of Related Studies
ØForeign Studies
ØLocal Studies
Chapter III. Research Methodology
• Research Design
• Research Locale
• Population and Sampling
• Research Instrumentation
• Data Gathering Procedure
• Statistical Treatment/ Data Analysis
Chapter IV. Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Chapter V. Summary, Conclusion, Recommendations
• Summary
• Conclusion
• Recommendations
 CHAPTER I.
THE PROBLEM AND
ITS BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION / BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
• Identify the rationale of the research problem when writing
the introduction/background of the study.

• Introduction starts with a general statement of the problem,

then provides a clear focus on a specific problem or issue.

• This specific problem must be clearly and precisely

discuss by providing relevant literature that points out
deficiencies or gaps in the literature and targeting the
study for evidence or proof.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
• Provides the purpose or interest of the study. It can also
be considered as the area of the concern.
• When writing the statement of the problem, the author
must be able to pose specific questions about the
research problem.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

• Sets the boundaries and parameters of the study. It
narrows the scope of the inquiry and clarifies or defines
terms used.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
• The theoretical framework is the structure that can
hold or support a theory of a research study. It
encompasses not just the theory, but the narrative
explanation about how the researcher engages in
using the theory and its underlying assumptions to
investigate the research problem.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

• The conceptual framework illustrates the expected

relationship between your variables. Similar to a

• It defines the relevant objectives for your research

process and maps out how they come together to
draw coherent conclusions.
RESEARCH PARADIGM/ SIMULACRUM

• This represents what variables or conceptual tags

investigated in the study. It could be presented in graphical
(traditionally called paradigm) or narrative form (especially
for qualitative studies)

• These are supported by hypotheses (quantitative studies) or

propositions (qualitative studies) .
RESEARCH PARADIGM/ SIMULACRUM
HYPOTHESIS
• Tentative statement about the relationship between two or
more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about
what you expect to happen in a study.
• It is a preliminary answer to your question that helps guide
the research process.
• Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question
which is then explored through background research.
• A hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the
hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the
goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is
right or wrong.
SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS
• This type of hypothesis suggests there is a
relationship between one independent variable and
one dependent variable.

COMPLEX HYPOTHESIS
• This type suggests a relationship between three or
more variables, such as two independent and
dependent variables.
STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS
• This hypothesis uses statistical analysis to
evaluate a representative population sample and
then generalizes the findings to the larger group.

LOGICAL HYPOTHESIS
• This hypothesis assumes a relationship between
variables without collecting data or evidence.
NULL HYPOTHESIS
• This hypothesis suggests no relationship
exists between two or more variables.

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
• This hypothesis states the opposite of the
null hypothesis.
Examples of a null hypothesis include:

"There is no difference in anxiety levels between people who

take St. John's wort supplements and those who do not."

"There is no difference in scores on a memory recall task

between children and adults."

"There is no difference in aggression levels between children

who play first-person shooter games and those who do not."
Examples of an alternative hypothesis:

"People who take St. John's wort supplements will

have less anxiety than those who do not."

"Adults will perform better on a memory task than

children."

"Children who play first-person shooter games will

show higher levels of aggression than children who do
not."
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
• Includes the people who would benefit from the study, and
how they would benefit from it.
• The study's contribution on the chosen discipline can also
b e d i s c u s s e d to a l l o w th e r e a d e r s u n d e r s t a n d t h e
importance of the study.
• When writing the details for the significance of the study, it
is advisable to check the statement of the problems to
establish a clear and concise explanation on the benefits
and beneficiaries of the study because it will help identify
the possible benefits the study might have.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• It refers to the clarification and explanation of key
concepts, terms, and terminology used in the study.
• It helps readers understand the specific meanings
and context of these terms within the research.
• It ensures that there is a common understanding of
the terminology used throughout the research,
avoiding any confusion or misinterpretation.
 CHAPTER II.
REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
AND STUDIES
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
• The RRL involves the systematic identification,
location, and analysis of documents containing
information related to the research problem.

• These materials are usually printed and found in

books, encyclopedias, articles, news, journals,
magazines and other publications.
FOREIGN LITERATURE
• Gives a foreign background, that are relevant to the
people and is shared from the people often refers
to public news articles which also showed
necessary data to help determine and support
research.

LOCAL LITERATURE
• Articles derived from local setting such as local
news media or our own public government sites.
REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES
• The RRS includes studiest, inquiries, and
investigations already conducted to which the
present proposed study is related to or has some
bearing o similarity.

• They are usually unpublished materials such as

thesis, manuscripts, and dissertations.
FOREIGN STUDIES
• R e f e r s t o a n i n q u i r y, r e s e a r c h o r s t u d y
conducted in foreign lands.

LOCAL STUDIES
• This refers to the researches and other
studies that are performed in our own setting
or country.
 APA CITATION
• Citation means giving credit to the sources
(websites, publications, movies, etc.) from which
you obtained the information you use in a paper.
• A citation style is a set of rules for how to cite
sources.
• APA style is created by the APA, the American
Psychological Association.
IN-TEXT CITATION
• Also called a parenthetical reference.
• A brief reference (often just an author's last name
and a date or page number) made within the body of
your essay that helps identify the original source of
an idea.
• In APA, in-text citations are inserted in the text of
your research paper to briefly document the source
of your information.
When using APA format, follow the author-date method of
in-text citation.

In-text Citations Have Two Formats

Parenthetical
• The author name and publication date (or equivalent
information) appear in parentheses.

• For example: Falsely balanced news coverage can

distort the public's perception of expert consensus on
an issue (Burnside, 2016).
Narrative
• The author name appears in running text and the date
appears in parentheses immediately after the author name.

• For example: Burnside (2016) noted the dangers of falsely

balanced news coverage.

If you are directly quoting or borrowing from another work, you

should include the page number at the end of the parenthetical
citation. For example, (Burnside, 2016, p. 199).
When the author, publication date or locator is unknown, take
the steps outlined below.
Missing element What to do Parenthetical
citation
Author Use the source (Source Title,
title.* 2020)
Date Write “n.d.” for (Smith, n.d.)
“no date”.
Page number Either use (Smith, 2020,
an alternative Chapter 3) or
locator or omit (Smith, 2020)
the page number.
 CHAPTER III.
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH DESIGN
• The blue print for collection measurement and analysis
of data.
• Refers to the overall strategy utilized to answer research
questions.
• A research design typically outlines the theories and
models underlying a project; the research question(s) of
a project; a strategy for gathering data and information;
and a strategy for producing answers from the data.
KINDS OF RESEARCH
BASED ON THEIR
RESEARCH DESIGN
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
The process of collecting and
analyzing data to understand
concepts, opinions or points of
view and experiences.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH
• Investigate an event by describing and interpreting
participants lived experiences that can have impact to
the individuals.
NARRATIVE RESEARCH
• Collecting and analyzing the accounts people tell to
describe experiences and offer interpretation.

GROUNDED THEORY
• To discover new theories based onthe analysis of real-
world data.
CASE STUDY
• An in-depth, detailed examination of a particular case,
person, group or event within a real-world context.

ETHNOGRAPHY
• Researchers immmerse themselves in groups or
organizations to understand their cultures.

HISTORIOGRAPHY/ HISTORICAL RESEARCH

• Collecting and interpreting data about past events or ideas
in order to find how they affected the present and to predict
future scenarios.
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
• Investigates research questions that have not
been studied in depth or to investigate a problem
which is not clearly defined.

EXPLANATORY RESEARCH
• An attempt to explain why or how a previously
studied phenomenon takes place.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
A systematic investigation of
phenomena by gathering
quantifiable data and performing
statistical, mathematical, or
computational techniques.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
• Aims to accurately and systematically describe a
population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer
what, where, when and how questions, but not why
questions.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• Study conducted with a scientific approach using two
sets of variables. The first set acts as a constant, which
you use to measure the differences of the second set.
CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE OR QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
• Research used to identify a cause and effect
relationship between two variables, where one
variable is dependent and another is independent.

SURVEY RESEARCH
• The most common form of quantitative research,
survey questionnaires are used to one or more
groups as the test pool.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
• Investigates relationships between variables
without the researcher controlling or manipulating
any of them.
• A correlation reflects the strength and/or direction
of the relationship between two (or more) variables.
• The direction of a correlation can be either
positive or negative.
RESEARCH LOCALE
• Research locale refers to the specific
geographical area or location where research
is conducted.
• It involves studying and analyzing the social,
economic, or environmental conditions of a
particular place or region.
POPULATION AND SAMPLING
• A population is the entire group that you want to draw
conclusions about.
• A sample is the specific group that you will collect data
from.
• The size of the sample is always less than the total size
of the population.
• Sample size means the number of individuals included
in the sample.
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES/ METHODS

Probability sampling involves random selection,

allowing you to make strong statistical inferences
about the whole group.

Non-probability sampling involves non-random

selection based on convenience or other criteria,
allowing you to easily collect data.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Simple Random Sampling
• Every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected.
• Use tools like random number generators or
other techniques that are based entirely on
chance.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Systematic Sampling
• Similar to simple random sampling, but it is
usually slightly easier to conduct.
• Every member of the population is listed with a
number, but instead of randomly generating
numbers, individuals are chosen at regular
intervals.
Stratified Sampling
• Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into
subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It
allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring
that every subgroup is properly represented in the
sample.
• To use this sampling method, you divide the population
into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant
characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income
bracket, job role).
Stratified Sampling
• Based on the overall proportions of the
population, you calculate how many people
should be sampled from each subgroup.

• Then you use random or systematic sampling to

select a sample from each subgroup.
Cluster Sampling
• Cluster sampling also involves dividing the
population into subgroups, but each subgroup
should have similar characteristics to the
whole sample.
• Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire
subgroups.
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Convenience Sampling
• A convenience sample simply includes the individuals
who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
• This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial
data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is
representative of the population, so it can’t produce
generalizable results.
• Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling bias
and selection bias.
Purposive Sampling
• Also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher
using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to
the purposes of the research.
• It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher
wants to gain detailed knowledge about a specific
phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or
where the population is very small and specific.
• An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and
rationale for inclusion.
Snowball Sampling
• If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling
can be used to recruit participants via other participants.

• The number of people you have access to “snowballs”

as you get in contact with more people.

• The downside here is also representativeness, as you

have no way of knowing how representative your sample
is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others.
Quota Sampling
• Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a
predetermined number or proportion of units. This is
called a quota.
• You first divide the population into mutually exclusive
subgroups (called strata) and then recruit sample units
until you reach your quota.
• These units share specific characteristics, determined by
you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota
sampling is to control what or who makes up your
sample.
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTATION
• A tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data
related to your research interests.

• The choice of research instrument will be based on

your methodology, specifically your research design.

• A research instrument can include interviews, tests,

surveys, or checklists.
 INTERVIEWS
Interviews or the interaction where verbal questions are posed
by an interviewer to elicit verbal responses from an
interviewee.

Structured Interview
• A formal set of questions posed to each interviewee and
recorded using a standardized procedure.

Unstructured Interview
• A less formal set of questions; the interviewer modifies
the sequence and wording of questions.
 INTERVIEWS
Non-Directive Interview
• An unguided interview, including open-ended questions
and use of spontaneous engagement.
Focus Interview
• An emphasis on the interviewees subjective and personal
responses where the interviewer engages to elicit more
information.
Focus Group Interview
• A group of selected participants are asked about their
opinion or perceptions concerning a particular topic.
 OBSERVATIONS
Observation (watching what people do) is a type of correlational
(non-experimental) method where researchers observe ongoing
behavior.

Structured Observations
• Research conducted at a specific place, time, where
participants are observed in a standardised procedure.
Rather than writing a detailed description of all behaviors
observed, researchers code observed behaviors
according to a previously agreed upon scale.
Naturalistic Observation
• The study the spontaneous behavior of participants in
natural surroundings. The researcher simply records what
they see in whatever way they see it.
Participant Observation
• A variation on natural observations where the researcher
joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to
get a deeper insight into their lives.
SECONDARY RESEARCH
Collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or
video recordings, etc.
 SURVEY
Survey research encompasses any measurement procedures that
involve asking questions of respondents. The types of surveys
can vary on the span of time used to conduct the study. They can
be comprised of cross-sectional surveys and/or longitudinal
surveys.

Free-Answer
• Also referred to as open-ended questions, these include
unrestricted, essay, or unguided questions.

Guided Response Type

• Recall-type questions asking the participant to recall a set of
categories. Multiple-choice or multiple response questions.
Open-ended questions are questions that have
unlimited response options.

Examples of Open-ended Questions

1. How was your training experiences like?
2. How did you decide to enter this review center?

Close-ended questions are questions that do not

allow for various response options. Close-ended
questions expect a particular answer.
Examples of Close-ended Questions
1. Did you attend the conference? YES/NO
2. Do you like the review canter?
TERTIARY SOURCES
• The sources that the chief purpose
is to list, summarize or simply
repackage ideas or other
information and usually not
credited to a particular author.
Likert scale is a unidimensional scale that researchers use to
collect respondents' attitudes and opinions
DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE
• Data gathering procedures refer to the systematic
methods and steps used to collect and analyze data
for a specific purpose or study.

• These procedures involve various activities such as

identifying necessary data, classifying data,
analyzing data sources, and estimating costs.
STATISTICAL TREATMENT/ DATA ANALYSIS
• Statistical treatment of data is taking raw data and
turning it into something that can be interpreted
and used to make decisions.
• Data analysis is a procedure of performing various
statistical operations.

• It is commonly used in quantitative research which

seeks to quantify the data.
DATA
• Research data is any information that has been collected,
observed, generated or created to validate original
research findings.

STATISTICS
• Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics that
involves the collection, description, analysis, and
inference of conclusions from quantitative data.

• The study and manipulation of data, including ways to

gather, review, analyze, and draw conclusions from data.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
• Branch of statistics that deals with summarizing and
describing the main features of a dataset.

• It provides methods for organizing, visualizing, and

presenting data meaningfully and informally.

• Descriptive statistics describe the characteristics of the

data set under study without generalizing beyond the
analyzed data.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
• Common measures and techniques in descriptive

statistics include measures of central tendency (such

as mean, median, and mode), measures of dispersion

(such as range, variance, and standard deviation),

frequency distributions.
WEIGHTED MEAN
• The weighted mean involves multiplying each data point
in a set by a value which is determined by some
characteristic of whatever contributed to the data point.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
• Involves making inferences, predictions, or
generalizations about a larger population based on data
collected from a sample of that population.

• It extends the findings from a sample to the population

from which the sample was drawn.
• Inferential statistics allow researchers to draw
conclusions, test hypotheses, and make predictions
about populations, even when it is impractical or
impossible to study the entire population directly.

• It includes hypothesis testing, z-test, t-test, f-test

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
• Hypothesis testing is a type of inferential statistics that is
used to test assumptions and draw conclusions about the
population from the available sample data.
• It involves setting up a null hypothesis and an alternative
hypothesis followed by conducting a statistical test of
significance.
• A conclusion is drawn based on the value of the test
statistic, the critical value, and the confidence intervals.
• A hypothesis test can be left-tailed, right-tailed, and two-
tailed. Given below are certain important hypothesis tests
that are used in inferential statistics.
Z Test
• A z test is used on data that follows a normal distribution
and has a sample size greater than or equal to 30.
• It is used to test if the means of the sample and population
are equal when the population variance is known. The right
tailed hypothesis can be set up as follows:

Decision Criteria: If the z statistic > z critical value then reject the
null hypothesis.
F TEST (ANOVA)
• In f test is used to check if there is a difference between the
variances of two samples or populations. The right tailed f
hypothesis test can be set up as follows:

Decision Criteria: If the f test statistic > f test critical value then
reject the null hypothesis.
 CHAPTER IV.
PRESENTATION,
ANALYSIS, AND
INTERPRETATION
OF DATA
 CHAPTER V.
SUMMARY,
CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION
SUMMARY
• A summary is simply a brief overview of the main points of
a research paper. It should not include any new information
or arguments, but simply, concisely state the main points.
CONCLUSION
• The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand
why your research should matter to them after they have
finished reading the paper.
• A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a
re-statement of your research problem but a synthesis of
key points.
RECOMMENDATIONS
• A recommendation is a suggestion or proposal for
something that should be done, as derived from
the findings.

• Recommendations can include: improvements in a

study approach or methodology, policy
suggestions and worthwhile directions for further
research.
 IMRAD
RESEARCH FORMAT
INTRODUCTION
• Introduction
• Research Framework
• Research problem
METHODS
• Research
• Participants
• Research Instrument
• Data Gathering Procedure
• Ethical Considerations
• Data Analysis
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
 ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
 Why Do Ethics Matter?
Honesty: Ensure honesty in all forms of scientific
communication with colleagues, sponsors or the general
public.

Objectivity: Avoid bias in all aspects of research.

Integrity: Maintain consistency of thought and action.

Carefulness: always Avoid errors or negligence

Openness: Share information about your research and be

open to criticism and new ideas
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles
that guide your research designs and practices.

• These principles include voluntary participation, informed

consent, anonymity, confidentiality, potential for harm, and
results communication.

• Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain

code of conduct when collecting data from others.
• These considerations protect the rights of research
participants, enhance research validity, and maintain
scientific integrity.
 ETHICAL ISSUES DEFINITION
Voluntary Your participants are free to opt in or out of the study at
participation any point in time.
Informed consent Participants know the purpose, benefits, risks, and
funding behind the study before they agree or decline to
join.
Anonymity You don’t know the identities of the participants.
Personally identifiable data is not collected.
Confidentiality You know who the participants are but you keep that
information hidden from everyone else. You anonymize
personally identifiable data so that it can’t be linked to
other data by anyone else.
Potential for harm Physical, social, psychological and all other types of harm
are kept to an absolute minimum.
Results You ensure your work is free of plagiarism or research
communication misconduct, and you accurately represent your results.
BIBLIOGRAPHY/
REFERENCES
REFERENCES/ BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Include the complete citation at the end of your paper
in a references section.
• References are organized by the author's last name in
alphabetic (A-Z) order.
• Use an hanging indent to separate each list item.
Basic Format:
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date). Title of the work.
Source where you can retrieve the work. URL or DOI if
available
PLAGIARISM
• According to University of Oxford,
plagarism is presenting work or ideas
from another source as your own, with
or without consent of the original
author, by incorporating it into your
work without full acknowledgement.
REDUNDANT PUBLICATION
• It occurs when two or more papers,
without full cross reference, share the
same hypothesis, data, discussion points,
or conclusions.
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