1.

1 Limits
The limit of a function f is a mathematical tool for studying the behaviour of f ( x ) as x gets
closer and closer to a particular value. As for example, consider the following function:

x2 + 2 x − 3
f ( x) = .
x −1
Although f ( x ) is not defined when x = 1, we still need to know what will happen to the value
of f ( x ) as x approaches 1.

x2 + 2x − 3
Table 1.1: Value of when x approaches 1 from the right and the left side
x −1

From the table above, notice that as x gets closer and closer to 1 from the left side, f ( x ) get
closer and closer to 4.
Using mathematical symbol, we write
f ( x) → 4 as x → 1− ,

and is written as lim− f ( x) = 4 . The “- “ sign indicates that x approaches 1 from the left side
x →1
where x  1 .
In a similar manner, when x approaches 1 from the right side, f ( x ) approaches 4.

Symbolically,
f ( x) → 4 as x → 1+ ,

And is written as lim+ f ( x) = 4 . The “+“ sign shows the process of evaluating the limit is from
x →1
the right side as x approaches 1 where x  1 .
Since the limits of f ( x ) from the left side and the right side are the same and equal to 4, then
we can write
lim f ( x) = lim+ f ( x) = 4 .
x →1− x →1

In this case, we shall summarize the results as

x2 + 2 x − 3
lim− = 4.
x →1 x −1
From the above discussion, a standard notation for limits is given in the following definition.
One-sided Limit
Definition 1.1 (Right Limit)
If the values of f ( x ) can be made as close as we like to L by taking the values of sufficiently
close to a (but greater than a), then we write
lim f ( x) = L
x →a+

and is read as “the limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a from the right is equals to L ”.

Definition 1.2 (Left Limit)

If the values of f ( x ) can be made as close as we like to L by taking the values of sufficiently
close to a (but less than a), then we write
lim f ( x) = L
x →a−

and is read as “the limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a from the left is equals to L ”.

Two-sided Limit
Definition 1.3 (Limit of a Function)
If the limits from the left and the right sides of f ( x ) exists and have the same value L ,

lim f ( x) = lim− f ( x) = L
x →a − x →a

Then lim f ( x) exist and it is written as

x→a

lim f ( x) = L
x →a

Which is read as “the limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a equal to L ”.

However, if either the limit from the left or that from the right does not exist, or if
lim f ( x)  lim− f ( x)
x →a− x →a

Then, lim f ( x) does not exist.

x→a

Remark
1 The symbol x → a means x approaches sufficiently close to a but never equal to a . In
other words, x → a is not the same as x = a .
2 The limit of f ( x) as x approaches a does not depend on the value of f at x = a . In fact,
function f may not be defined at x = a .
Example 1.1
Examine the graph of y = g (t ) shown below. Find:

Solution:
Example 1.2

Given the graph f ( x ) below.

Find:
(a) lim f ( x) . (b) f (1) . (c) lim f ( x) . (d) f (4) .
x →1 x→4

Solution:
Example 1.3
Given the graph f ( x ) below.

Find:
(a) f ( −2) .
(b) lim f ( x) .
x →−2

(c) lim f ( x) .
x → 0=

(d) lim f ( x)
x→2

(e) f (2)
(f) f (4)
(g) lim f ( x)
x→4

Solution:
Example 1.4
 2 − 3x , x 1
Given f ( x) =  2 , find lim f ( x).
x + x − 3 , x  1 x →1

Solution:

Example 1.5
 e− x , x0

Given g ( x) =  2 , x = 0 . Evaluate the lim g ( x) if exist and determine g (0) .
x →0
2 x + 1 , x  0


Solution:
Example 1.6
 x+2 , x  −1

Given h( x) =  x 2 , −1  x  1 . Find:
4 − x 2 x 1
 ,

(a) lim− h( x) . (b) lim+ h( x) . (c) lim h( x) . (d) lim− h( x)

x →−1 x →−1 x →−1 x →1

(e) lim+ h( x) (f) lim h( x) .

x →1 x →1

Solution:
Infinite Limits

Infinite limits are another class of non-existent limits. It happens whenever the values of f ( x)
increase or decrease without bound as the values of x approach a given value.

If the function f ( x) increases without bound as x approaches a from the left and right side,
then lim f ( x) = +.
x→a

lim f ( x) = + , lim+ f ( x) = +
x →a − x →a

If the function f ( x) decreases without bound as x approaches a from the left and right side,
then lim f ( x) = −.
x→a

lim f ( x) = − , lim+ f ( x) = −
x →a − x →a

If the function f ( x) increases without bound as x approaches a from the right side, and
decreases without bound as x approaches a from the left side, then lim f ( x) does not exist.
x→a

lim f ( x) = − , lim+ f ( x) = +
x →a − x →a
Example 1.7
4
Consider f ( x) = , x  2 . State lim− f ( x) , lim+ f ( x) and lim f ( x) .
x−2 x→2 x→2 x→2

Solution:

From the graph, we notice that

(a) as x approaches 2 from the left, f ( x)
approaches a arbitrarily large negative
number that is represented by − and can be
written as lim− f ( x) = − .
x →2
(b) as x approaches 2 from the right, f ( x)
approaches a arbitrarily large positive
number that is represented by + and can be
written as lim+ f ( x) = + .
x →2

A limit such as lim− f ( x) = − or lim+ f ( x) = +

x →2 x →2
is called an infinite limit.
Therefore,
lim f ( x) does not exist.
x→2

Example 1.8
Based on the graph below, state the lim− f ( x) , lim+ f ( x) and lim f ( x) .
x →1 x →1 x →1

3
f ( x) =
( x − 1)
2

Solution:
Limits at Infinity
The behaviour of a function as x increases or decreases without bound. It is sometimes called
the end behaviour of a function.
If x approaches positive infinity, f ( x) approaches but never quite reaches a value of L, using
limit notation, we state lim f ( x) = L .
x →+

If x approaches negative infinity, f ( x) approaches but never quite reaches a value of M, using
limit notation, we state lim f ( x) = M
x →−

2
Consider the following f ( x) = .
x2

x approaches a large negative number x approaches a large positive number

x -10000 -1000 -100 -10 10 100 1000 10000

f ( x) 0.0000002 0.000002 0.0002 0.02 0.02 0.0002 0.000002 0.0000002

f(x) approaches 0 f(x) approaches 0

From the table above

(a) as x approaches an arbitrarily large negative number that is represented by − , f ( x)
approaches 0 and can be written as lim f ( x) = 0 .
x →−
(b) as x approaches an arbitrarily large positive number that is represented by + , f ( x)
approaches 0 and can be written as lim f ( x) = 0 .
x →+

lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) are known as limit at infinity. More specifically, lim f ( x) is the limit
x →− x →+ x →−

a negative infinity whereas lim f ( x) is the limit at positive infinity.

x →−

The behaviour of f ( x) when x → + and x → − is shown in the graph below.

2
f ( x) =
x2

Example 1.9
Based on each of the following graphs, state the limits at infinity of f ( x) .

(a) (b)
1
f ( x) = 3
5− x f ( x) = +3
(2 − x) 2

Solution:
1.2 Computational Methods of Limits
The previous discussion was focused on interpretation of limits using graph graphically. Our
next section is about algebraic techniques for computing limits based on limit laws. Using the
limit laws, limits can be evaluated much more quickly and easily.
Theorem 1.1 (Basic Propeties of Limits)
Let a, k, and n be real numbers.
(1) lim k = k
x→a

(2) lim x = a
x→a

(3) lim x = a n
x →a

Remarks: Theorem 1.1 also holds true for x approaching either direction, x → + or
x → −
Example 1.11
Evaluate the following limits:
(a) lim 2 = 2 (b) lim 2 = (c) lim 2 =
x→3 x→−10 x→+

Example 1.12
Evaluate the following limits:
(a) lim x = −1 (b) lim x = (c) lim x =
x →−1 x → x →−

Example 1.13
Evaluate the following limits:
(a) lim x 4 = 44 = 256 (b) lim x 2 = (c) lim x 5 =
x →4 2 x →−
x →−
3

(d) lim x 6 =
x →+
Theorem 1.2: Properties of Limits

Let a be a real number and suppose lim f ( x ) and lim g ( x ) exist. The following properties
x→a x→a

hold where c is a real number, and n  0 is an integer.

(1) Constant Mulitple lim cf ( x ) = c lim f ( x )

x →a x →a

(2) Sum lim  f ( x ) + g ( x )  = lim f ( x ) + lim g ( x )

x →a x →a x →a

(3) Difference lim  f ( x ) − g ( x )  = lim f ( x ) − lim g ( x )

x →a x →a x→a

(4) Product lim  f ( x )  g ( x )  = lim f ( x )  lim g ( x )

x →a x →a x →a

f ( x ) lim f ( x)
(5) Quotient lim = x→a , provided lim g ( x )  0
x→a g ( x ) lim g ( x ) x →a
x→a

n
(6) Power lim  f ( x )  = lim f ( x ) 
n

x →a  x →a 
1 1

(7) Root lim  f ( x )  = lim f ( x )  n , provided f ( x )  0 if n is even

n
x →a  x →a 

Example 1.14
Evaluate the following limits:

(a) lim 4 x 2 (b) lim 3x5 + 2 x − 5 (c) lim ( x 4 − 5 ) (1 − x )

x →10 x →−3 x →1

x −1
lim  4 x 
3
(d) lim (e) (f) lim 3 2 x
x→4 x2 x →−2 x →−8

Solution:

(a) lim 4 x 2 = 4 lim x 2 = 4 (10 ) = 400

2
Using Property 1
x →10 x →10

(b) lim 3x5 + 2 x − 5 = lim 3x 5 + lim 2 x − lim 5 Using Property 2 & 3

x →−3 x →−3 x →−3 x →−3

= 3 ( −3) + 2 ( −3) − 5
5

= −740
(c) lim ( x 4 − 5 ) (1 − x ) = lim ( x 4 − 5 )  lim (1 − x ) Using Property 4
x →1 x →1 x →1

x −1
(d) lim
x→4 x2

(e)

(f)
From the limit laws above, comes the property of direct substitution. This property makes it
possible to solve most rational and polynomial functions.

Theorem 1.3: Limits of polynomial and Rational Function

Assume p and q are polynomials and a is a constant.

(a) Polynomial function: lim p ( x ) = p(a)

x →a

p ( x) p (a)
(b) Rational Function: lim = , provided q ( a )  0
x →a q ( x) q (a)

Example 1.15
Evaluate the following limits:

5 x3 + 4 2x +1
(a) lim 4 x − 5 x + 3
2
(b) lim (c) lim
x →−5 x →2 x − 3 x →−3 x − 3x + 1
2

t 2 −1
(d) lim 3 (e) lim x3 ( 7 x 2 + 3x − 1) (f) lim 2 x − 3 16 x
t →3 t +1 x →4 x→4

Solution:
Special Cases of when the Limit of Denominator is Zero
Two cases to be considered:
Case 1: the denominator is not zero
Case 2: the limit of the numerator is also zero

Case 1
The limit of the rational expression does not exist, i.e. if

f ( x)
lim f ( x )  0 while lim g ( x ) = 0 , then lim does not exist.
x →a x →a x →a g ( x)

Example 1.16
Evaluate the following limits:
1
(a) lim
( x − 3)
x →3 2

Solution:
1 1
lim = . Since the limit of the numerator is 1, but the limit of the denominator x − 3
( x − 3)
x →3 2
0
is zero, we can conclude that limit does not exist.

x
(b) lim
x →5 x −5

Solution:
Case 2
f ( x) 0
lim of the form .
x →a g ( x) 0

Factorization Method
f ( x)
When lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim g ( x ) = 0 , lim
0
cannot be evaluated because is undefined.
x →a x →a x →a g ( x) 0
0
The form is called an indeterminate form. In this case, the numerator must have one or
0
more common factors of ( x − a ) . Factor those quantities and cancel the factor ( x − a ) .

Example 1.17
Evaluate the following limits:

x 2 + x − 12 x2 + x − 2
(a) lim (d) lim
x →3 x −3 x →1 x 2 − 4 x + 3

x − 3x + 2
2
1  1 1
(b) lim (e) lim  − 
x−2 x →−1 x + 1 3 − x
x →2
 4
x −1 f ( x + 2) − f ( 2) 1
(c) lim (f) lim if f ( x ) = 2
x →1 x + x−2
2 x →0 x x −1

Solution:
0
x 2 + x − 12 Indeterminate form
(a) lim 0
x →3 x −3
= lim
( x − 3)( x + 4 ) Factorizing x 2 + x − 12
x →3 x −3
= lim ( x + 4 ) Cancelling the common factor x − 3
x →3

= 3+ 4 Substituting x = 3
=7
Multiplication of Conjugate Method
0
If by direct substitution, the limit of a rational function involving surd is (indeterminate
0
form), then the method of multiplication of conjugate can be used.

Example 1.18
Evaluate the following limits:
x−2 x −1
(a) lim (d) lim
x →2 x+2 −2 x →1
x2 + 3 − 2
x +9 −3 1  1 1
(b) lim (e) lim  − 
x →−1 x + 1 3 − x
x →0 x  4
x 2 − 3x + 2 f ( x + 2) − f ( 2) 1
(c) lim (f) lim if f ( x ) = 2
x →2 2− x+2 x →0 x x −1

Solution:
x−2 0
(a) lim Indeterminate form
x →2 x+2 −2 0
x−2 x+2+2 x+2+2
= lim  Multiplying the numerator and denominator by
x →2 x+2 −2 x+2 +2
( x − 2) ( x + 2 + 2) Simplifying the denominator by x + 2 + 2 . Do not multiply out the product
= lim
x →2 ( x + 2) − 4 ( x − 2) ( x+2+2 )
( x − 2) ( x+2 +2 )
= lim
x →2 x−2
= lim
x →2
( x+2 +2 ) Cancelling the common factor x − 2

= ( 2+2 +2 ) Substituting x = 2

=4
Remarks
In the above example, x approaches a finite value a . Can the theorem of limits be used to
evaluate the limits when x approaches positive or negative infinity?
+
In this case, if k  , c , then
c
lim =0
x → x k

provided x k is defined.
f ( x) 
When, lim f ( x ) =  and lim g ( x ) =  , lim cannot be evaluated because is an
x →+ x →− x → g ( x) 

indeterminate form. Hence, to find the limit, divide the numerator and denominator of the
f ( x)
rational function by the highest power of x appearing in the denominator.
g ( x)

Example 1.19
Evaluate the following limits:
6x −1 8x − 9
(a) lim (b) lim
x →+ 2x +1 x →− 7 − x2

3x − 5 4x + 3
(c) lim 3 (d) lim
x →+ 6x + 8 x →+
25 x 2 − 16

Solution:

6x −1 
(a) lim Indeterminate form
x →+ 2 x + 1 
6x −1
= lim x
x →+ 2 x + 1 Dividing the numerator and denominator by x

x
1
6−
= lim x Simplifying the numerator and denominator
x →+ 1
2+
x
1
lim 6 − lim
x →+ x →+ x
= Using the properties of limit
1
lim 2 + lim
x →+ x →+ x
 6−0
= Substituiting lim
1
=0
2+0 x →+ x
=3
1.3 Continuity
Intuitively, a function is continuous if its graph can be drawn without lifting the pen off the
paper. A function f which is continuous at the point x = a may be interpreted geometrically
as a graph with no breaks such as a hole or a gap at that point.

The graph of a function has a break or hole if any of the following occurs:
(a) the function f is undefined at a
(b) the limit of f ( x ) does not exist as x approaches a
(c) the value of the function and the value of the limit at a are different.
Below are some intuitive examples of graphs of functions that are not continuous at x = a

Definition 1.4
A function f is said to be continuous at x = a provided the following conditions are
satisfied:

(1) lim f ( x ) exists.

x→a

(2) f ( a ) is defined.
(3) lim f ( x ) = f ( a ) .
x →a

Remarks:
If one of the three conditions fails, then the function is discontinuous at x = a .
Example 1.20

Based on the graph f ( x ) below, determine whether the function is continuous at x = 0 and
x =1.

Solution:
In each case, we must check the conditions listed in the definition.
When x = 0

(1) lim f ( x )
x →0

lim f ( x ) = 1 and lim+ f ( x ) = 1

x → 0− x →0

Since lim− f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = 1 , lim f ( x ) = 1 Satisfying condition (1)

x →0 x →0 x →0

(2) f ( 0 ) = 1 Satisfying condition (2)

(3) lim f ( x ) = f ( 0 ) = 1 Satisfying condition (3)

x →0

Therefore, f ( x ) is continuous at x = 0 .

When x = 1
Example 1.21
Based on the graph below, determine whether the function is continuous at x = 4 .

Solution:

Example 1.22

 x2 , x  0
Determine whether the function f ( x) =  is continuous at x = 1
1 − x , x  0

Solution:

Example 1.23

 x2 − x − 2
 , x2
Determine whether the function f ( x) =  x − 2 is continuous at x = 1
 , x=0
 3

Solution:
Example 1.24

The function continuous at f ( x ) is defined as follows:

− x 2 + 1 , x0

f ( x) =  2 x + 1 , 0  x  3 .
 6 , x3


Determine whether the function f ( x ) is continuous at x = 0 and x = 3 .

Example 1.25

The function continuous at f ( x ) is defined as follows:

 9x − 2 , x 1

f ( x) = −kx − 2 , 1  x  3 .
2

 x2 x3
 ,
(a) Find the value of k such that f ( x ) is continuous at x = 3 .
(b) Using the value in (a), determine whether the function f ( x ) is continuous at x = 1 .
Example 1.26
 x +1 , x 1

Given h( x) = ax + b , 1  x  2 . Find the values of a and b so thar h ( x ) is continuous
 3x x2
 ,
everywhere.

Example 1.27

 p −1 , x 1

Given h( x) =  3 x + q , 1  x  4 and lim f ( x ) = 4 .
x →1
 x2 − 5x + 4
 , x4
 x − 4

(a) Find the values of p and q .

(b) Determine whether the function f ( x ) is continuous at x = 4 .
Exercise 1
1. For the function f graphed below, find the following:

(a) lim− f ( x ) (d) lim f ( x ) (g) lim+ f ( x )

x →−3 x →−1 x →4

(b) lim f ( x ) (e) f ( −1) (h) lim f ( x )

x →−3 x →6

(c) f ( −3) (f) lim f ( x ) (i) f ( 6 )

x→2

(j) List the value(s) of x at which f is discontinuous.

2. For the function g graphed below, find the following:

 (a) lim+ g ( x ) (d) lim− g ( x ) (g) lim− g ( x )
x →−5 x →−2 x →3

(b) lim g ( x ) (e) g ( −2 ) (h) g ( 3)

x →5

(c) g ( −5 ) (f) lim g ( x ) (i) lim g ( x )

x →−2 x →5

(k) List the value(s) of x at which g is discontinuous.

 x −1 , x  3
3. Given f ( x) =  .
3x − 7 , x  3

Find lim− f ( x ) , lim+ f ( x ) , lim f ( x ) and f ( 3) .

x →3 x →3 x →3

x − 2 , x  0
4. Given f ( x) =  2 .
 x , x0

Find lim− f ( x ) , lim+ f ( x ) , lim f ( x ) and f ( 3) .

x →0 x →0 x →0

 x +1 , x  1
 3

5. Given f ( x) =  , x = 1 . Evaluate the limit of the function when x → 1 , if exist.
 2
2 − x , x  1

mx 2 + 3 , x3

6. Given f ( x) =  −2 x , 3 x  4.
 −x + 6 , x4

(a) Find the value of m so that lim f ( x ) exist.
x →3

(b) Find lim− f ( x ) , lim+ f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) .

x →4 x →4 x→4

7. Evaluate the following limits:

lim ( x3 + 1)( x 2 + 1) lim ( x3 + x 2 − x )

100
(a) (b)
x →3 x →−1

x3 + 2 x 2 − 1
(c) lim 2 x − 7 + 3x (d) lim
x →4 x →−2 5 − 3x
2
 t2 − 2  2 x2 + 1
(e) lim  3  (f) lim
t →−2 t − 3t + 5 x →2 3x − 2
 
8. Evaluate the following limits:

x 2 − 49 x− 5
(a) lim (b) lim
x →7 x − 7 x→ 5 x2 − 5
x −3 x 2 − 7 x + 12
(c) lim 2 (d) lim
x →3 x − 4 x + 3 x →3 2x − 6
x2 − 5x + 4 8 − 2x
(e) lim (f) lim 2
x →4 x−4 x → 4 x − x − 12

( x − 2)
3
x3 + 3x 2 − 10 x
(g) lim (h) lim
x →2 x−2 x →5 x3 − 4 x 2 + 4 x
x +8
3
8 x5 + 12 x 4
(i) lim (j) lim
x →−2 x + 2 x →0 x4
t2 + t − 2 3x3 − 2 x 2
(k) lim 2 (l) lim 2
x →4 t −1 x →0 x +x
x2 − 5x 2 x − 8x2
(m) lim 2 (n) lim
x →5 x + 2 x − 35 1 1− 4x
x→
4

9. Evaluate the following limits:

x −9 x−2
(a) lim (b) lim
x →9 x −3 x →2 2 − 6 − x

x +5 −3 3x + 1 − 1
(c) lim (d) lim
x →4 x−4 x →0 2x
2x +1 − 3 x2 − 9
(e) lim (f) lim
x →1 x −1 x →0
x2 + 7 − 4

10. Evaluate the following limits:

7 − 6 x3 2 x3 − 4 x + 1
(a) lim (b) lim
x →+ 2 x 3 + 3 x x →+ 4 − 6 x3
x+2 2+ y
(d) lim 2 (d) lim
x →− x − 2 x + 1 y →+
6 y2 − 7
11. By referring to the graph below, determine whether the function g ( x ) is continuous at
x = −3 , x = −2 , x = 0 , x = 2 , x = 3 , x = 4 and x = 5 using the properties of continuity.

12. Determine whether the given function below is continuous or not.

 x2 − 4
 , x2
(a) f ( x) =  x − 2
 4 , x=2

 x2 , x3
(b) g ( x) = 
3x , x3

3x + 2 , x 1

13. Given h( x) =  5 , 1  x  3 . Determine whether the function is continuous at x = 1
 x2 −1 , x3

and x = 3 .

 x2 − 3
 , x 3
x− 3
14. Given f ( x) =  . Determine whether the function is continuous at
 x +6 , x  3
 3
x= 3
  x2 , x3

15. Given g ( x) =  sx + 3 , 3  x  4 .
 10 , x4


(a) Find the value of s if g ( x) is continuous at x = 3 .

(b) Find the lim+ g ( x ) and lim g ( x ) .
x →2 x →+

(c) Determine whether the function is continuous at x = 4 .

16. Determine the value of m so that the following function is continuous.

 x2 + x − 6
 , x  −3
f ( x) =  x + 3 .
 , x = −3
 m

3 x 2 − 1 , x0

17. Let g ( x) =  cx + d , 0  x  1 . Determine the value of c and d so that the following

 x +8 , x 1
function is continuous everywhere.

 x+3
 , x2
18. The function f ( x ) is defined by f ( x) =  x − 1 . Find the value of p if
 px 2 − 3 , x  2
lim f ( x ) exists. If p = 3 , determine whether f ( x ) is continuous at x = 2 .
x→2
Answer

Q1 (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) undefined (d) does not exist

(e) -2 (f) does not exist (g) -1 (h) 1

(i) 3

Q2 (a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) -1

(e) 2 (f) does not exist (g) 2 (h) undefined

(i) Does not exist

Q3 2, 2, 2, 2

Q4 −2 , 0 , does not exist, 0

Q5 does not exist

Q6 (a) m = −1 (b) − 8 , 2 , does not exist

−1 4
Q7 (a) 280 (b) 1 (c) 13 (d) (e)
11 49

3
(f)
2

1 1 1
Q8 (a) 14 (b) (c) (d) − (e) 3
2 5 2 2

2
(f) 3 (f) − (g) 14 (h) 0 (i) 12
7
3 5 1
(j) 12 (k) (l) 0 (m) (n)
2 12 2

1 3 1
Q9 (a) 6 (b) 4 (c) (d) (e)
6 4 3

(f) 8

1 1
Q10 (a) −3 (b) − (c) 0 (d)
3 6

Q11 discontinuous at x = −3 , continuous at x = −2 , discontinuous at x = 0 , discontinuous at x = 2 ,

discontinuous at x = 4 , and discontinuous at x = 5

Q12 (a) continuous at x = 2 , (b) discontinuous at x = 3

Q13 (a) continuous at x = 1 , (b) discontinuous at x = 3

Q14 discontinuous at x = 3

Q15 (a) s=2 (b) 4, 10 (c) discontinuous at x = 4

Q16 m = −5

Q17 c = 4 and d = −1

Q18 p = 2 , discontinuous at x = 2