Communication Skills 1

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COMMUNICATION
SKILLS
BURETI TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE
© 2019
BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

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INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
Communication
Definition: communication is the giving, receiving, or exchange of information, opinions or ideas by writing,
speech or visual means or a combination of the three so that the material communicated is completely
understood by everyone concerned.
Communication Terms and Concepts

Communicator (Sender/receiver) - the participants in communication. Typically the roles reverse regularly. The
sender is the person or body responsible for sending the message. The sender can be an individual, or a group
such as a company, a department, or even a government ministry or a political party. The receiver is the person or
body which receives the message. The receiver can be an individual or an organization-a company or some other
large group of people. Information. This is the material from which the communication will be constructed. It is
the actual content put across to the listener, reader or viewer.
Message. Having defined or decided on the information to be conveyed, the sender puts it into the best form in a
process called encoding. When information has been encoded, it is known as the message. This simply refers to
the form the communication takes i.e. a letter, memo, telephone call or even something as simple as a smile, a
shrug of the shoulders or some other gesture.
Encoding. Encoding is the process by which the sender converts the idea into a message by using verbal or non-
verbal mediums of communication. These can be words, signs, gestures, symbols or body movements. In order
to ensure that the message is well understood, the sender uses words and non-verbal signals that the receiver is
familiar with.
Decoding. This is the process of translating words, signs and symbols into meanings. Successful decoding is the
correct understanding of the intent of the message as transmitted by the sender. Medium. This is the larger group
of ways of communicating within which the particular communication can be classed. There are three main
media:
Written communication- letters, memos, books and articles, notices and posters.
Oral communication- that is, any method of using the spoken word, such as meetings, telephone calls,
interviews, lectures and informal discussions.
Visual communication- a drawing, photograph or other means of putting over a message by pictorial means.
Channels – The channel is the method or methods used to convey a message. The type of message will
determine the channel to be used. Channels include face to face conversations, telephone calls or video
conferences, and written communication like emails and memos.
For written communication it might be a notice board, an internal mail service, memo, report, radio or the
public postal service.
For oral communication it might be a personal interview, a committee meeting or a public telephone
system.
For visual communication it might be a computer printer, a printing press or a fax system. Noise/ barriers – This
is the name given to any factors which prevent the proper exchange of information apart from those caused by the
sender or the receiver. Noise can be physical such as the sounds of traffic, typewriters or telephone bells which
interrupt a meeting or it can be some other form of interference e.g. a bad telephone connection, poor handwriting
in a letter, a computer failure which causes the loss of documents on a fax line, or even a conflicting message or if
the speaker‘s facial expression conveys a different message from that being given orally. Environment (part of
context) - that which surrounds and provides a basis for the meaning/interpretation of a message:
Physical (surroundings)
O Temporal (point in time)
O Relational (the existing relationship between communicators - friends, strangers, etc.)

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o Cultural (language and behavior community the communicator(s) come from) The context helps
determine the tone and style of your communication.
Feedback – This is the receiver‘s response to the sender‘s message. The responses can be both verbal and non-
verbal. It is an important factor in the communication process because it helps the sender to know whether the
message has been understood or not.
The Purposes of Communication

According to Camp & Satterwhite (2002), there are four main purposes of communication:
Communicating to Inform
We communicate to tell someone about something. To inform is to pass on information. In the workplace, you are
informing when you explain something to your colleagues, your employees, or your customers.. If you tell an
employee how to operate the copy machine, you are informing; if you tell a customer how to fill out a form, you
are informing. You also inform when you tell another person what happened. Perhaps you received a phone call
from a customer who is angry about his or her service, and you need to describe the call to your supervisor to
learn what to do next. This situation is another example of communicating to inform.
Communicating to Persuade
This aims to influence people and bring them round to your way of thinking.
Communication in the business world is mainly persuasive. In other words, you are trying to get another person to
do or believe something. In business, you are always selling your ideas, yourself, your products, or your services.
Selling and persuading are nearly synonymous in the business world. You may be trying to persuade your
supervisor to give you a raise, you may be attempting to persuade a colleague to change a portion of a project on
which you are both working, or you may be trying to sell a customer your company‘s service or product. All of
these are examples of persuasion at work.
In order to succeed at persuasion, you must generally give good reasons for the person you are communicating
with to do or believe what you intend.
Communicating to Establish Credibility
Establishing credibility is important for people in business. Credibility is achieved via effective communication.
Credibility enhances an individual‘s or company‘s reputation.
Credible people demonstrate that they have strong emotional character and integrity; they are known to be
honest, steady, and reliable. Credibility is akin to reputation. Increasingly, at an organizational level,
reputation is becoming more important. Sophisticated customers do not make financial decisions based solely
on an organization‘s competitive advantage in the marketplace. Instead, customers are increasingly sensitive to
a company‘s reputation. In fact, public relations have developed as a functional area to manage the reputations
of companies.
Communicating to establish goodwill

This involves maintaining and forming cordial and harmonious relationships with people you are communicating
Your ability to establish and build relationships affects every aspect of your life. Whether in your social, academic,
or professional life, this ability determines the depth of your relationships with friends, family members,
classmates, and coworkers. Good relationships result in goodwill which is the favourable reputation that an
individual or a business has with customers. Any communication that helps to develop a better relationship
between you and your receiver builds goodwill.
To inquire
This involves obtaining information in various ways,e.g by asking questions or through formulating
questionnaires.
Social interaction.

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We communicate to establish and maintain relationships with others
Principles/ essentials of effective communication

Clarity
Be clear about the message you want to deliver, as giving a confused message to your audience only ends up
with them being confused and your message being ignored.
Avoid unnecessary detail.
Conciseness/ Brevity
Communication should be brief. Do not include too much detail that will bore the receiver. The message should
be direct.
Simple.
Avoid the use of big words, jargon and slang. They only confuse the receiver and will lead to communication
breakdown.
Consistency
Make sure that your theme remains the same. Avoid bringing in details which are not central to the main
message.
Medium
There are several ways you can deliver your message—the trick is to use the right one.
The right medium is one:
with the greatest accuracy
with the largest likelihood of audience comprehension/ understanding
with the lowest financial cost
fast
Relevancy
Communicate only what is appropriate and relevant to the audience.
Completeness
Communicated message must be complete. Completeness refers to providing enough information so that the
intent of the message is understood by the receiver. Never make them guess what you mean and never assume
that the audience will know what you mean. Give important information such as time, date, places, quantities,
dimensions etc.
Correctness
The sender must give correct facts and express them in the correct language.
Courtesy
We must create friendship with all those to whom we communicate. Workmates, customers, clients etc respond
positively to those who treat them with respect and kindness. Use words such as please, thank you, sorry,
congratulations etc.
Information Communication Technology (ICT)

Information Communication Technologies can be defined as diverse set of technological tools and resources used
to communicate, to create, disseminate, store, and manage information.‖ This includes any communication device
or application, encompassing: radio, television, cellular phones, computer and network hardware and software,
satellite systems and as well as the various services and applications associated with them, such as
videoconferencing and distance learning.
There are 6 components to an ICT system

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Data: raw facts and figures.

Hardware: physical components.
Software: the name given to computer programs.
Information: data that is converted to give it a meaning.
Procedures: a series of actions conducted in a certain order to make sure the system runs smoothly.
People: data is entered by humans, for example a keyboard
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Role of ICT in communication
ICT supports the communication and co-operation of people in their organizations and in the creation and
exchange of knowledge.
ICT supports the external relations of the company i.e communication and co-operation with customers, suppliers
and partners. This will allow for an agile and adaptive ICT enabled organization with flexible patterns of
production. This makes for instance mass-customization or even mass-individualization possible: large-scale
delivery of products and services tailored to the wishes of the customer.
Communication technology and virtual reality will support the remote communication between people with a
quality near to face-to-face communication. This supports remote communication in the form of virtual
workshops, virtual classroom or distant learning.
Information technology supports new forms of electronic documents. Multimedia and virtual reality is useful
technologies in support of information exchange and learning processes.
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Channels of communication
Definition
A communication channel is a means through which a message is sent and received. In other words, it's the
method of communication used.
Factors to consider when choosing a communication channel
Time
The amount of time the message will take to reach the recipient is very important, especially if it‘s something of
urgency. This will mean that the message has to be relayed in the shortest time span possible so that an
appropriate action can take place.
Cost
Many people prefer using a means that is not only reliable, but pocket friendly as well. This will ensure that they
are able to maintain communication at all times without having to strain too much financially.
Confidentiality
Some messages are very sensitive and are meant for the eyes of the recipient only. This means that the sender has
to select a means of communication that conforms with confidentiality, so the message is not relayed to third
parties.
Complexity

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The channel used should ensure that the recipient will be able to read and understand the message clearly. This
means that they should factor the complexity of the message in selecting the appropriate channel.
Distance
The distance the message is supposed to travel and the conditions it should arrive in should also be considered.
This is why many people prefer using electronic mail compared to postal mail.
Reliability
Confidentiality of the message
Types of communication channels
Face-to-Face
Face-to-face is still the preferred communication channel if clarity of message is of primary importance.
Advantages
Face to face communication allows you to interact with the listener in a back-and-forth discussion.
It also allows you to utilize nonverbal gestures, facial expressions and personal charisma to enhance the message.
Fast feedback.
Disadvantages
A drawback is the potential that a conflict could become more heated or emotional in a face-to-face channel.
Tension or stress is also more likely if you have personal conflict with the other person.
No permanent record. Not admissible in court. Cannot be used as evidence.
.Frequent interruptions.
Telephone associated software to transmit electronic mail over a network.
E-mail is a vital communication channel in geographically dispersed companies.

E-mail allows for more flexible response times. You can send a message one day and receive a response in a
few hours or the next day. It allows for conversation that isn't time-pressured, but can serve for fast
turnaround times.
It also allows for the inclusion of files, such as documents or images.
Permanent record.
Prior planning before prior.
Disadvantages
E-mail is less personal than either face-to-face or phone.
Lack of instant clarifications.
Feedback can be slow.
Letters, memos, e-mail, notices, reports e.t.c (Written communication)

Written communication expresses facts and ideas in writing in a clear, convincing and organized manner. Some of
the various forms of written communication that are used internally for business operations include memos,
reports, e-mail, letter, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals.
5. TV and Radio (Adv & disadv- assignment)
Advantages of written communication (letters, memos, e-mail, notices, reports e.t.c.)

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Permanent record: The documents of written communication act as a permanent record. When it is needed,
important information can be easily collected from the preserved documents. The documents of written
communication are easy to preserve. Oral and non-verbal communication cannot be preserved.
Precise and explicit. Written communication presents the information more accurately and clearly. Written
communication is clear and straight forward.
Used as a reference: If it is needed, written communication can be used for future reference.
Delegation of authority: Written communication can help the authority to delegate the power and authority to the
subordinate. It is quite impossible to delegate power without a written document.
Longevity: Written document can be preserved for a long time easily.
Disadvantages of written communication (letters, memos, e-mail, notices, reports e.t.c.)

Expensive: Written communication is comparatively expensive. It costs are huge in terms of stationery and
the manpower employed in writing/typing and delivering letters.
Time consuming: Written communication takes time to communicate with others. It is a time consuming media.
It costs the valuable time of both the writer and the reader.
Useless for illiterate person: If the messages receiver is illiterate, understanding written communication is quite
impossible.
Difficult to maintain secrecy: It Secrecy is not always possible to maintain through written communication.
Delay in response: It takes much time to get a response from the message receiver; prompt response is not
possible in case of written communication like it is possible in oral communication.
Not personal
Stages in the communication process/ The communication cycle/ Basic concepts of transmission
and receipt of information/ Communication Cycle
Information-- Sender (Encodes) ---Channel/ medium/ message----------- receiver (Decodes)
Feedback
Information- Here the sender defines the information to be sent, by thinking about the aim of the
communication and the content to be conveyed.
Encoding- This is the encoding process of putting the information into the form which is most suitable both to
the receiver and to the aim. In most cases, encoding involves putting ideas into words. Sometimes, however, it
will be best to encode an idea in a picture, or even in a gesture. Encoding is a process through which the
message is symbolized.
Transmission- This is the actual transfer of information, by means of a medium and channel. Receiver- At this
point the receiver takes in the message for example by reading a letter, listening to a speech or looking at a
TV programme.
Decoding- The receiver interprets the message given in order to obtain his/ her own idea of the information it
conveys. Decoding is the process in which the message is translated and meaning is generated out of it.
Feedback- This is the feedback stage. This is the receiver‘s response to the sender‘s message. The responses can
be both verbal and non-verbal. It is an important factor in the communication process because it helps the sender
to know whether the message has been understood or not.
Meaning is the significance that the sender (speaker/ writer/ designer) and the receiver each attach to a
message, and shared meaning occurs when the receiver‘s interpretation of the message is similar to what the
speaker thought, felt, and intended.

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Communication barriers
This is the name given to any factors which prevent the proper exchange of information apart from those
caused by the sender or the receiver. Communication barriers can pop-up at every stage of the communication
process (which consists of sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback and context.
Barriers to effective communication
Language barriers. Language barriers occur when people do not speak the same language, or do not have
the same level of ability in a language. However, barriers can also occur when people are speaking the
same language. Sometimes barriers occur when we use inappropriate levels of language (too formal or
informal) or we use jargon or slang which is not understood by one or more of the people communicating.
The receiver is less likely to understand the message if the sender has trouble choosing the precise words
needed and arranging those words in a grammatically-correct sentence.
Emotional Interference. An emotional individual may not be able to communicate well. If someone is angry,
hostile, resentful, joyful, or fearful, that person may be too preoccupied with emotions to receive the intended
message. If you don‘t like someone, for example, you may have trouble ―hearing‖ them.
Physical Distractions. If a receiver of a communication works in an area with bright lights, glare on computer
screens, loud noises, excessively hot or cold work spaces, or physical ailments, that receiver will probably
experience communication breakdowns on a regular basis. A bad cellular phone line or a noisy venue can
destroy communication. If an E-mail message or letter is not formatted properly, or if it contains grammatical
and spelling errors, the receiver may not be able to concentrate on the message because the physical
appearance of the letter or E-mail is sloppy and unprofessional.
Channel Barriers. If the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of communication, communication may
cease. Detailed instructions presented over the telephone, for example, may be frustrating for both
communicators.
Long Communication Chain. The longer the communication chain, the greater the chance for error. If a
message is passed through too many receivers, the message often becomes distorted. If a person starts a
message at one end of a communication chain of ten people, for example, the message that eventually returns
is usually liberally altered.
Lack of Interest. If a message reaches a reader who is not interested in the message, the reader may read the
message hurriedly or listen to the message carelessly. Miscommunication may result in both cases.
Lack of Feedback or inadequate feedback. Since communication is a two-way process, the sender must
search for a means of getting a response from the receiver. Delayed feedback can interfere with good
communication.
Strategies for overcoming barriers to effective communication

It is very important to overcome barriers to effective communication. This involves diagnosing and analyzing
situations, designing proper messages, selecting appropriate channels, assisting receivers of messages in correct
decoding and interpretation of the messages and providing for an efficient and effective feedback system.
Use of Simple Language: Use of simple and clear words should be emphasized. Use of ambiguous words and
jargons should be avoided.

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Reduction and elimination of noise levels: Noise is the main communication barrier which must be overcome
on priority basis. It is essential to identify the source of noise and then eliminate that source.
Active Listening: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference between
―listening‖ and ―hearing‖. Active listening means hearing with proper understanding of the message that is
heard. By asking questions the speaker can ensure whether his/her message is understood or not by the
receiver in the same terms as intended by the speaker.
Emotional State: During communication one should not show their emotions as the receiver might
misinterpret the message being delivered. For example, if the conveyer of the message is in a bad mood then
the receiver might think that the information being delivered is not good.
Proper Media Selection: The communicators should properly select the medium of communication. Simple
messages should be conveyed orally, like: face to face interaction or meetings. Use of written means of
communication should be encouraged for delivering complex messages. For significant messages reminders can
be given by using written means of communication such as : Memos, Notices etc
Ethical issues in communication

Ethics is defined as moral principles that govern a person‘s behaviour or the conducting of an activity.
Characteristics of ethical communication
Conveying the point without offending the audience:
While communicating to the audience, conveying the desired message to them in a polite and significant
manner is of primary importance. There are different ways to explain the things to them in a much smoother
manner.
Maintain a relationship with the audience:
Maintaining the same wavelength/ level with the audience is very important for a communicator to ensure the
audience feels at home. Experienced communicators immediately build a relationship based on trust with the
audience as soon as they start speaking.
Avoid withholding crucial information:
In the modern era, information is vital for all decisions. Hence, it is vital for any organization to be cautious when
communicating with the public. The communicated information should be absolute and all vital information must
be conveyed appropriately. Purposely withholding crucial information might result in the receivers conceiving a
bad image about the organization or the communicator.
Accuracy of information is necessary:
Any information that is to be passed on must be true and accurate. Communicating without checking the truth of
the information can be highly dangerous for the organization. Identification of the source and testing the
information is necessary before communicating it.
Courteous
CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION
Types of communication
Formal communication: When communication occurs by following the prescribed rules and procedures of the
organization, it is called formal communication. Formal communication is governed by the established chain of
command.
Uses of formal communication
 Issuing instruction. The management uses it to pass forth instructions to staff on various subjects.
 Inform. Information concerning different issues is conveyed in an organization via formal channels. This can be
vertically or horizontally.
 Coordination. Formal communication tends to be used for coordinating routine transactions within
groups and organizations.

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Persuade.
Motivate.
Informal communication: When communication does not follow any prescribed rule or procedure, it is called
informal communication. The basis of informal communication is spontaneous relationship among the
participants. Informal communication is sometimes more powerful and more effective that formal
communication.
Uses of informal communication
Supplements formal communication.
 Informal communication is useful in supporting the social functions of groups. This is because
organizations are less explicit in regulating social relationships than they are in regulating formal
communication.
Giving or getting help
Giving or getting help refers to joint problem solving for one person‘s benefit. This type of interaction commonly
consists of a question-answer exchange. Often these questions are shouted from a distance and results are in short,
simple answers.
Gets work done. The maintenance of personal networks and social relationships through informal
communication is understood to be a key factor in how people get work done.
Internal communication: Internal communication refers to the flow of information to the internal participants
of an organization. It happens only within the organization. The main purpose of this communication is to
ensure smooth functioning of organizational activities.
Internal communication may be of two types: Vertical communication and horizontal communication.
Vertical communication: When information flows between superiors and subordinate of an organization, it is
known as vertical communication. Vertical communication can be of three types: Downward communication,
upward communication and diagonal communication.
Downward Communication: Downward communication occurs when information flows form superiors to
subordinates.
Upward Communication: Upward communication occurs when information flows form subordinates to
superiors. Purpose: Through upward communication, subordinates convey their responses, reactions and
performance feedback to their superiors.
Diagonal or cross communication: Diagonal communication occurs when information flows between persons
at different levels who have no direct reporting relationships. Purpose: Diagonal communication is used to
speed information flow, to improve understanding and to coordinate efforts for the achievement of
organizational goals.
Horizontal communication: Where information flows among persons holding the same position or rank in the
organization.
Uses of internal communications
Improving the effectiveness of the organization. The more information people have, the more quickly they get
it and the better connections the better the work done.
Informs. Information from the management gets to the subordinates and vice versa. Message
communicated could be about policy decisions or requests.
Problem solving. This is by providing a channel for everyone's ideas and opinions. Solutions can be
found if communication is encouraged and is effective.
It creates a climate of openness within the organization. If everyone feels he/ she has access to whatever
information he/ she needs or wants, and can talk to anyone in the organization about anything, it encourages
good relations among people and promotes trust.

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Through downward communication, superiors send organizational goals, policies, job assignments, orders,
instructions etc to their subordinates.
External communication: Where an organization communicates with external or outside parties. External
parties include customers, suppliers, investors, bankers, insurance companies, government agencies, local
communities etc. the main purpose of external communication is to exchange information with the outside
parties. External communication employs the use of letters, PR, advertising, emails, presentations etc.
Uses of external communication (Assignment)
Interpersonal communication: Interpersonal communication is an exchange of information between two

or more people. Successful interpersonal communication is when the message senders and the message
receivers understand the message.
Uses of interpersonal communication

Give and collect information.
Influence the attitudes and behaviour of others.
Form contacts and maintain relationships.
Make sense of the world and our experiences in it.
Express personal needs and understand the needs of others.
Give and receive emotional support.
Make decisions and solve problems.
Intra-personal communication
Intrapersonal communication is an individual's internal use of language or thought. It can be useful
to .envision intrapersonal communication as occurring in the mind of the individual. The individual
communicates in his/ her mind through the process of thinking and feeling.
Intrapersonal communication enables an individual to shape self-concept and develop one‘s convictions. It helps
one to think, plan, analyze and interpret ideas and messages. It also provides the opportunity to think of new ideas
and be creative about new decisions, approaches and solutions to organizational problems.
Uses of intrapersonal communication

Enables one to effectively communicate with others.
In order to successfully communicate with others you must first learn to communicate with yourself.
Intrapersonal communication is the most basic level of communication. You must understand who you are
and what you think of yourself.
Increases focus, concentration and performance. If you believe you cannot do something, your brain will tell
your body exactly that and it will shut down. When you stay encouraged and positive, your body will also
respond in a positive way.
Enables one think things through.
Enables one interpret messages and events.
FORMS OF COMMUNICATION Different Forms of

Communication
Oral Communication
Oral communication includes sounds, words, language and speaking. Language is said to have originated from
sounds and gestures. There are many languages spoken in the world. The basis of language formation is: gender,

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class, profession, geographical area, age group and other social elements. Speaking is an effective way of
communicating and is again classified into two types viz. interpersonal communication and public speaking.
Good Oral communication is an inseparable part of business communication. In a business, you come across
people from various ages, cultures and races. Fluent oral communication is essential, when with dealing people in
business meetings. Also, in business communication self-confidence plays a vital role which when clubbed with
fluent communication skills can lead to success.
Public speaking is another verbal communication in which you have to address a group of people. Preparing for
an effective speech before you start is important. In public speaking, the speech must be prepared according to
the type of audience you are going to face. The content of your speech should be authentic and you must have
enough information on the topic you have chosen for public speaking. All the main points in your speech must be
highlighted and these points should be delivered in the correct order. There are many public speaking techniques
and these techniques must be practiced for an effective speech.
Advantages of Oral Communication
Verbal Communication has the following advantages:
1. Saving of Time
Under this form of communication the messages are communicated immediately without consuming any time.
Oral communication is the best option during an urgent condition and when immediate action is necessary.
2. Saving of Money
It saves money as it needs no help of any particular media.
3. More Effective
As there is direct touch/ contact of the sender and receiver message transmission proves to be more effective. The
sender of message can also exercise his personal influence over the receiver of message.
4. Knowledge of Reaction of Message
An important advantage of oral communication is that under this method of communication, the sender of
message can judge the reaction of the message on its receiver. He comes to know whether the receiver of the
message will follow it or not.
Disadvantages of Oral Communication

Oral communication has the following disadvantages:
1. Lack of Proof of Message
The greatest disadvantage of oral communication is that there is no proof of the message communicated.
2. Not Suitable for Future Reference
Since there is nothing in writing supporting the messages communicated orally, it is not suitable for future
reference. If there is any dispute on any point of the message, it cannot be helped in any way.
3. Not Suitable in Case of Distance
If the receiver and the sender of the message are far from each other, this method of communication
is not suitable because it will increase the cost of communication.
Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication is the way in which we express our feelings, emotions, attitudes, opinions and views
through our body movements. Body language is a non-verbal way of communication. Body posture and physical
contact convey a lot of information. Body posture matters a lot when you are communicating verbally to
someone. Folded arms and crossed legs are some of the signals conveyed by a body posture. Physical contact,
like, shaking hands, pushing, patting and touching expresses the feeling of intimacy. Facial expressions, gestures
and eye contact are all different ways of communication. Reading facial expressions can help you know a person
better.

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Creative and aesthetic non-verbal communication includes singing, music, dancing and sculpturing.
Symbols and sign language are also included in non-verbal communication.
When we communicate, non-verbal cues can be as important, or in some cases even more important, than what
we say. Non-verbal communication can have a great impact on the listener and the outcome of the
communication.
Non-verbal communications include facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the voice, gestures displayed
through body language (kinesics) and the physical distance between the communicators (proxemics). These non-
verbal signals can give clues and additional information and meaning over and above spoken (verbal)
communication.
Non-verbal Messages Allow People To:
Reinforce or modify what is said in words. For example, people may nod their heads vigorously when saying
"Yes" to emphasise that they agree with the other person, but a shrug of the shoulders and a sad expression when
saying "I'm fine thanks,‖ may imply that things are not really fine at all!
Convey information about their emotional state.
Define or reinforce the relationship between people.
Provide feedback to the other person.
Regulate the flow of communication, for example by signalling to others that they have finished speaking or
wish to say something.
Non-verbal communication include:
Body Movements (Kinesics)
Posture
Eye Contact (occulesics)
Para-language
Closeness or Personal Space (Proxemics)
Facial Expressions
Body Language or Body Movements (Kinesics)

Body movements include gestures, posture, head and hand movements or whole body movements. Body
movements can be used to reinforce or emphasise what a person is saying and also offer information about the
emotions and attitudes of a person. However, it is also possible for body movements to conflict with what is said.
A skilled observer may be able to detect such discrepancies in behaviour and use them as a clue to what someone
is really feeling.
Research work has identified the different categories of body movement/ gestures that are detailed below
with each category describing the purpose they commonly serve:
Emblems: these gestures have direct verbal translations, like nodding the head for ‗yes‘, shaking the head for
‗no‘ or waving the hand for ‗hello‘. They may be used in place of words.
Illustrators: Gestures which accompany words to illustrate a verbal message are known as illustrators. For
example, the common circular hand movement which accompanies the phrase 'over and over again', or nodding
the head in a particular direction when saying 'over there'.
Affect Displays: These are facial expressions or gestures which show the emotions we feel. These are often
unintentional and can conflict with what is being said. Such expressions give strong clues as to the true
emotional state of a person.
Regulators: Gestures used to give feedback when conversing are called regulators, for example head nods,
short sounds such as 'uh-huh', 'mm-mm', and expressions of interest or boredom. Regulators allow the other
person to adapt his or her speech to reflect the level of interest or agreement. Without receiving feedback,
many people find it difficult to maintain a conversation.

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Adaptors: these are unconscious movements of the body that originate from the nervous state of our mind.
E.g. in an interview, when the candidate is nervous or uncomfortable with the questions asked, he/ she may
unconsciously crack knuckles, shake legs or tap the foot
Posture
Posture can reflect people's emotions, attitudes and intentions. Research has identified a wide range of postural
signals and their meanings, such as:
Open and Closed Posture: Two forms of posture have been identified, ‗open‘ and ‗closed‘, which may reflect
an individual's degree of confidence, status or receptivity to another person. Someone seated in a closed position
might have his/her arms folded, legs crossed or be positioned at a slight angle from the person with whom they
are interacting. In an open posture you might expect to see someone directly facing you with hands apart on the
arms of the chair. An open posture can be used to communicate openness or interest in someone and a readiness
to listen, whereas the closed posture might imply discomfort or disinterest.
Eye Contact (occulesics)

This is the science of the movement/ grammar of our eyes. Eye contact serves three main purposes:
To give and receive feedback: Looking at someone lets them know that the receiver is concentrating on the
content of their speech. Not maintaining eye contact can indicate disinterest. Communication may not be a
smooth process if a listener averts their eyes too frequently.
To let a partner know when it is their 'turn' to speak: This is related to the above point. Eye contact is
more likely to be continuous when someone is listening, rather than speaking. When a person has finished
what they have to say, they will look directly at the other person and this gives a signal that the arena is open.
If someone does not want to be interrupted, eye contact may be avoided.
To communicate something about a relationship between people: When you dislike someone, you tend to
avoid eye contact and pupil size is often reduced. On the other hand, the maintenance of positive eye contact
signals interest or attraction in a partner.
Eye grammar (what eyes communicate)
Staring eyes. Too much eye contact which show superiority or lack of respect, a threatening attitude or
a wish to insult.
Too little eye contact. It indicates dishonesty, impoliteness, insincerity, and also shyness.
Withdrawal of eye contact. This is considered a sign of submission.
Para-language (paralinguistics)
Para-language relates to all aspects of the voice which are not strictly part of the verbal message, including the
tone and pitch of the voice, the speed and volume at which a message is delivered, and pauses and hesitations
between words.
These signals can serve to indicate feelings about what is being said. Emphasising particular words can imply
whether or not feedback is required.
A voice that has tremors will not make feel very positive about the speaker.
A high speed of talking in interviews or negotiations or presentations will not instill confidence in the
interviewers or audience.
Closeness and Personal Space (Proxemics) The study of personal
space is termed proxemics.
Every culture has different levels of physical closeness appropriate to different types of relationship, and
individuals learn these distances from the society in which they grew up. When someone violates an
appropriate distance, people may feel uncomfortable or defensive. Their actions may well be open to
misinterpretation.

15
In Western society, four distances have been defined according to the relationship between the people involved.
The Four Main space zones/ distances
Intimate Distance (touching to 45cm)
Personal Distance (45cm to 1.2m)
Social Distance (1.2m to 3m)
Public Distance (3m)
These four distances are associated with the four main types of relationship - intimate, personal, social and
public.
Each of the distances are divided into two, giving a close phase and a far phase, thus making eight divisions in
all. It is worth noting that these distances are considered the norm in Western Society:
Intimate Distance: Ranges from close contact (touching) to the 'far' phase of 15-45cm. In British society, it
tends to be seen as an inappropriate distance for public behaviour and, as mentioned above, entering the intimate
space of another person with whom you do not have a close relationship can be extremely disturbing.
Personal Distance: The 'far' phase of personal distance is considered to be the most appropriate for people
holding a conversation. At this distance it is easy to see the other person's expressions and eye movements, as
well as their overall body language. Handshaking can occur within the bounds of personal distance.
Social Distance: This is the normal distance for impersonal business, for example working together in the same
room or during social gatherings. Seating is also important; communication is far more likely to be considered
as a formal relationship if the interaction is carried out across a desk. In addition, if the seating arrangements
are such that one person appears to look down on another, an effect of domination may be created. At a social
distance, speech needs to be louder and eye contact remains essential to communication, otherwise feedback
will be reduced and the interaction may end.
Public Distance: Teachers and public speakers address groups at a public distance. At such distances
exaggerated non-verbal communication is necessary for communication to be effective. Since subtle facial
expressions are lost at this distance so clear hand gestures are often used as a substitute. Larger head movements
are also typical of an experienced public speaker who is aware of changes in the way body language is perceived
at longer distances.
Advantages of non-verbal communication
Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement an oral message by adding to its meaning. You can pat
someone you offended at the back as you say sorry to him or her.
Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-verbal communication through using visual,
audio-visual and silent means of non-verbal communication.
Substituting: Non-verbal message may substitute for the oral message especially if the oral message is blocked
by noise, interruption, long distance etc. for example: gestures-finger to lips to indicate need for quite, facial
expressions- a nod instead of a yes.
Accenting: Often used to accent a verbal message. Verbal tone indicates the actual meaning of the specific
words.
Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. pointing a direction while stating directions.)
Help to illiterate people: This type of communication uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, proximity,
touching etc. and without using any spoken or written word. So, it is very much helpful for illiterate people.
Help to handicapped people: Non-verbal cues of communication greatly help in handicapped people
especially to deaf people. Deaf people exchange message through the movements of hands, fingers, eye
ball etc.
Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based on visual, picture, graph, sign etc. that can be
seen very much attractive.
Quick expression of message: Non-verbal cues of communication like signs and symbols can also
communicate some messages very quickly than written or oral messages.

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Disadvantages of non-verbal communication

Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. This is because this
communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear meaning to the receiver. No dictionary
can accurately classify them. Their meaning vary according to culture and context.
Continuous: It is possible to stop talking in oral communication, but it is generally not possible to stop
nonverbal cues. Also, spoken language has a structure that makes it easier to tell when a subject has changed, for
instance or to analyze its grammar. Nonverbal does not lend itself to this kind of analysis.
Multi-channel: while watching someone‘s eyes, you may miss something significant in a hand gesture.
Everything is happening at once and therefore it may be confusing to try to keep up with everything. Most of us
simply do not do so, at least not consciously.
Culture-bound: Different cultures have different meanings and interpretations of different non-verbal
messages.
Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal communication, long conversation and necessary
explanations are not possible. No party can discuss the particular issues of the messages.
Difficult to understand: Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions in non-verbal
communication. Since it uses gestures, facial expressions eye contact, touch etc. for communicating with
others which may not be understandable for the simple and foolish people.
Not everybody prefers: Everybody not prefers to communicate through non-verbal communication with
others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or listeners. It is less influential and cannot be
used everywhere. It is cannot be used as a public tool for communication.
Lack of formality: Non-verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or structure like verbal.
In most instances, people unconsciously and habitually engage in non-verbal communication by moving the
various parts of their bodies.
Costly: In some cases non-verbal communication involves huge cost. For example, neon sign, power point
presentation, cinema etc are very much costly compared to others form of communication.
Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch, sign, sound,
paralanguage etc. for communicating with others, there is a great possibility in distortion of information in
non-verbal communication.
Written Communication
Written communication is writing the words which you want to communicate. Good written communication is
essential for business purposes. E-mails, reports, articles and memos are some of the ways of using written
communication in business. Written communication can be used for formal business communication and also for
informal communication purposes. Mobile SMS is an example of informal written communication.
Advantages of Written Communication

The written communication can be edited and amended many times before it is communicated. This is
one of the main advantages of using writing as the major means of communication in business activity.
No need of Personal Contact
Economical
If the receiver and sender of the message are far apart, it is economical to communicate the message in
writing because communicating by post is cheap and quite economical.
Written Proof
Written communication provides a proof for future reference. If there is any dispute the message may be referred
to.

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Disadvantages of Written Communication

Written communication has the following disadvantages:
1. Delay
There is delay because the message is writing is communicated after a certain process is completed. It is
prepared, edited, proofread etc before the written communication is delivered. Consequently, the message is
delayed.
2. Lack of Secrecy
There is no secrecy in written communication. Secrecy cannot be maintained because these messages can be
accessed by anyone.
3. Costly
Written communication involves heavily expenditure. If the receiver and sender of message are near to each
other, it is fairly costly to communicate in writing.
Visual communication
Visual communication is visual display of information, like, photography, signs, symbols and designs.
Television and video clips are the electronic form of visual communication.
Advantages of visual communication

Conveys information in a fast manner
Visual communication is very fast as far as conveying a message is concerned. A graph for example, showing
company‘s expenditure in a financial year, can be understood just at a glance, compared to paragraphs of text or a
speech to convey the same information. Through visual communication complex facts and figures can be easily
absorbed/ understood.
Better understanding and retention
A picture is retained in our memory longer than words or quotes. Research shows that people remember
visuals the best, followed by speech, accompanied by reading.
Impactful
A graphic of any kind can elicit a stronger reaction from the reader. Compare saying "Nature is a wonderful thing"
to an audience, to an image of young, cuddly animals. The image will move people emotionally and be more
effective.
Effective
It is a much more efficient way of communicating - not just in time required for relaying information, the effort
is much less too. For example, if I had to describe the usage of a pen to a group of people, it would be much
easier for me to do so with a pen at my aid, and the point would get across better when those present actually see
the pen being written with.
Removes ambiguities
Ambiguities are more common with only oral communication, especially now with globalization, as people from
diverse backgrounds and linguistic abilities are working together. A visual, on the other hand, makes everything
very clear. For example, if I say "The Kremlin is a colorful, domed structure", some would imagine it to be like a

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grand cathedral, whereas a few others would think of it shaped liked an igloo. But with a picture, everyone would
instantly know how it actually looks.
Captivates and retains audience attention

When visuals are used instead of a simple speech, it makes a person more involved and connected, as visuals are
able to pull down most barriers of communication, and open up people.
It enables comparisons to be made and recognized easily.
Disadvantages of visual communication

Costly: The visual methods of communication are more costly than those of other methods. To draw maps,
charts, diagram is costly. That is why only large companies or organization can use this technique. High
quality images, pictures and graphics, require additional resources to produce. Besides, using lower quality
visuals has been proven to reduce credibility.
Complex presentation: Sometimes visual presentation of information becomes complex. Thus the receivers
cannot understand the meaning of the presentation.
Incomplete method: This technique is considered as an incomplete method. Visual presentation is not
sufficient to communicate effectively and clearly but also it can be successfully used with oral
communication. Also only a small amount of information can be conveyed via a graphic. A very detailed
visual will look cluttered, overwhelm the reader, and reduce its impact.
Time consuming: Making a graph or pie chart requires more time and effort, as it involves selecting,
compiling, and presenting a large amount of information in a visually-pleasing manner. Whereas oral
communication takes no time to exchange information.
Distracting. Visuals can be distracting, shifting the focus away from the presentation itself. For example,
using a fancy, illegible font can actually distract members of the audience from what is being said. A visual
can also close up the viewer, if it is too disturbing or controversial.
Problem for general readers: General people are not prefers to communicate through visual communication
with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or listeners. It is less influential and
cannot be used everywhere.
Audio-visual communication
This is the use of both a sound and a visual component for communication. It involves the use of slide-tape
presentations, films, television programs, church services and live theater productions.
Disadvantages
Technical Problems
Regardless of your equipment, there are many things that could go wrong that may disrupt your presentation. A
bulb might burn out on your projector or it might be blurry or hard to focus. When using a PowerPoint
presentation, font and colors may show up differently on screen or the music and sound might not play. CDs can
skip. DVDs may be scratched or not compatible with your player.
Distractions
Visual aids are more of a distraction if used throughout the entire presentation versus during key points. Special
effects and light from the projector can draw attention away from the speaker. Too much information can also be
distracting, because the audience will be trying to read and/or take notes while the speaker has moved on to the
next subject. There also may be too many slides for the audience to interpret or the audio and visual may not

19
match up. An entertaining video can take the focus off the speaker and the presentation, while a dry video and
low lighting can put students to sleep.
Expensive
Professionally created audiovisuals are expensive. Slides, videos, and films cost money unless borrowed from a
library. The equipment used e.g. video cameras, computer hardware and software can be very costly.
Time
Audiovisual presentations can take a considerable amount of time to prepare. It takes time to produce your own
video or slides. Films may be difficult to obtain, or it can take time to get permission to use them. Posters and
transparencies may require extensive preparation. Creating a PowerPoint presentation can also be time
consuming.
Space
If you choose to use an audiovisual aid, the size of the room should be taken into consideration. It is critical that
all students are able to see or hear your presentation. If the room is too large for everyone to see the visual aid, or
if part of your audience is forced to view the presentation at odd angles, some students will struggle to keep up
with your lesson.
Convenience
Certain audiovisual aids such as VCRs for older video recordings, can be bulky and difficult to transport.
OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE, PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY Etiquette

Definition
Etiquette is defined as the code of ethical behaviour regarding professional practice or action among the
members of a profession in their dealings with each other. It includes conventional requirements as to social
behavior and conduct as established in any class or community or for any occasion.
Communication Etiquette therefore involves courteous and well-thought out interaction between individuals or
groups that includes informed speech, attentive and active listening and a sincere grasp or understanding of what
is being communicated.
In the business world, good manners are essential for getting ahead. Proper etiquette can help people land jobs,
get promotions and establish excellent relationships with others. The most successful businessmen and women
know how to turn on the charm and exhibit their best business etiquette to get the job done professionally and
effectively (Houston Chronicle (2015).
Need/ importance for Etiquette

Etiquette makes you a cultured individual
Etiquette teaches you the way to talk, walk and most importantly behave in the society.
Etiquette is essential for a lasting first impression. The way you interact with your superiors, parents, fellow
workers, friends speak a lot about your personality and up- bringing.
Etiquette enables the individuals to earn respect and appreciation in the society. No one would feel like talking
to a person who does not know how to speak or behave in the society. Etiquette inculcates a feeling of trust and
loyalty in the individuals. One becomes more responsible and mature. Etiquette helps individuals to value
relationships.
Communication etiquette
Acknowledge communications: When someone communicates with you, respond in a way that indicates you
got the message and will act appropriately. In some cases, the response will simple be a thank you.

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Provide follow up on previous communications: When you have had a communications, there is an expectation of
something being done. You take the action as communicated. The remaining thing to be done is to communicate
what has been done.
Be respectful in all communications: There is never a time when you should be disrespectful of those you
communicate with – even if you are responding to communications that were disrespectful to you.
Communicate new information to those who need the information: Whenever you obtain information that is
generally not known by others, provide people with this information. The key is to think of who needs to know the
information and what parts of the information would be useful to these people.
Communicate through the appropriate media: Tough sensitive issues should be communicated in person.
Information that is primarily factual can be communicated electronically. Communications that require
discussion does not work well electronically.
Communicate through channels: You should rarely communicate directly to those above your functional leader or
client unless approved by the person above you. The only time when skipping of your boss might be appropriate is
when there is an ethical or similar issue where your boss is uninvolved.
Use the correct titles: You need to learn how to address different people. Some will have titles. Some will prefer
to be addressed formally (Mr., Ms).
Telephone Etiquette- It is essential to learn how one should interact with the other person over the phone.
Telephone etiquette refers to the way an individual should speak on the phone. Never put the other person on long
holds. Make sure you greet the other person. Take care of your pitch and tone.
Politeness. Remember to always say please and thank you when you interact with others, in person or over
written correspondence. Being polite makes you pleasant to work with and shows respect.
Protocol
Protocol is a system of rules that explain the correct conduct and procedures to be followed in formal
situations. Most of the communication encounters in business are formal. Communication protocol
therefore means standard procedures that are adhered to in communication activities in an organization.
A company needs an overall communication protocol to establish a minimum standard of dialogue and
interaction which is directly proportional to the scenario at hand. To put it more simply, the more
important the issue, the higher the level of effective communication required. With an effective
communication protocol in place, what your clients will see is excellence in service and they will be
aware of the stage in which some process or activity they are interested in has reached.
A complete communication protocol consists of the following:
It shows who is included in the communications.
It indicates what will be communicated. It shows how far or deep the communication will go.
It gives guidelines on when to communicate.
It tracks of the communication in order to ensure that it is maintained and effective.
It explains why a certain level or depth of communication required for a given issue.
It shows the channel to use e.g. phone, e-mail, posting on website, face to face presentation e.t.c.
Diplomacy
Definition:
It is the art of dealing with people in a sensitive and effective way. It involves the skill in handling affairs
without arousing hostility.
We all need to know what to say and how to say it in any situation. We need to know how to
communicate with diplomacy, tact and confidence.
The way in which we communicate can elicit positive or negative emotions. If we communicate
aggressively, without respect or sensitivity, or angry emotions we will prevent effective communication

21
from taking place. Communicating with diplomacy and tact is an approach that combines strength and
sensitivity and keeps negative emotions at bay.
Why be diplomatic?
In modern day and age, one has to practice diplomacy as it is essential to get one‘s way in a world that is
highly competitive. What you say matters a lot. One has to be careful while conveying issues as they
would have an impact on one‘s surroundings. Building up of personal relationships depends upon your
choice of words and how you convey them to the concerned person.
It is essential to be diplomatic as what we convey does influence others actions. Much has to be accomplished in
our daily lives, and we need to interact with others in order to achieve it. We may have to convince others and
also get our way.
In the arena of international politics, much is conveyed diplomatically. Countries have to foster relations
between each other and naturally they have to be very careful in their public dealings. Diplomacy plays an
important role in striking deals. Senior leaders of various countries do not convey much in their talks. They have
to be careful in what they say. They do not reveal or convey everything. They play with words. In fact, they do a
lot of ―sweet talk‖.
How to be diplomatic in communication.

Think before you communicate. Even if you are angry or felling offended, think before you say or do anything.
Try to keep calm and evaluate the situation objectively and assess the factual information before you without
including emotions.
Use decisive language. Speak clearly in simple language so that the person or people you are addressing won‘t
misunderstand your points.
Be non-confrontational. Avoid language that could be heard as confrontational or overly aggressive.
Avoid highly emotional situations. If you are involved in a discussion that‘s already emotionally charged or
argumentative, suggest to the parties involved to take a break and return to it after calm has returned.
Choose a diplomatic posture. Use neutral body language to put your points across. Maintain eye contact.
Avoid waving your hand when you talk as this can be viewed as aggressive or distracting. Do not engage in
smiling all the time as it indicates lack of serious intent. People will not take you seriously.
Stand your ground. Be firm in your responses and opinion but allow some degree of flexibility.
Advantages of being diplomatic

One strikes deals.
One is able to win over people.
Keeps enemies at bay.
Settle disputes amicably.
Also it makes you more closer to people as you are less likely to offend them
Telephone etiquette
When talking hold the mouthpiece an inch away from your lips and the earpiece close to the ears.
Speak politely,
Always
directorybeand anconfidently
prepared andbook
to receive
appointment aincall.
a near
positive
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give andfriendly
hand. tone.
to receive information. Have a paper, pen or pencil, telephone
When you pick the receiver, you should first introduce your company, the department or even you if desirable.
Say a pleasant ‗good morning‘ or ‗good afternoon‘. It adds a cordial note to the response. Listen carefully
without interrupting the caller.
If part of the message is not clear, politely ask the caller to repeat it.
Avoid mumbling words together or talking through the nose or teeth.
Avoid clichés like ‗yes‘, ‗ah‘, ‗I see‘, etc.

22
Do not shout into the telephone. Do not speak too low. Try to be as natural as possible. Try to speak as if the
person you are speaking to is sitting next to you.
In long distance calls, it is good to be loud but shouting should be avoided at all costs.
In telephonic communication. Time is the most vital factor and so do not waste time in idle personal talk. But at
the same time do not sound abrupt also.
WRITING SKILLS
Good writing skills are essential for effective communication. Learning to write well takes time and practice.
Punctuation is the system of signs or symbols given to a reader to show how a sentence is constructed and
how it should be read.
Sentences are the building blocks used to construct written accounts. They are complete statements. Punctuation
shows how the sentence should be read and makes the meaning clear. Every sentence should include, at least, a
capital letter at the start, a full stop, exclamation mark or question mark at the end. This basic system indicates
that the sentence is complete.
The Comma (,)

The comma is useful in a sentence when the writer wishes to:
pause before proceeding
add a phrase that does not contain any new subject
separate items on a list
use more than one adjective (a describing word, like beautiful)
For example, in the following sentence the phrase or clause between the commas gives us more information
behind the actions of the boy, the subject of the sentence:
The boy, who knew that his mother was about to arrive, ran quickly towards the opening door. Note that if the
phrase or clause were to be removed, the sentence would still make sense although there would be a loss of
information. Alternatively, two sentences could be used: The boy ran quickly towards the opening door. He
knew that his mother was about to arrive.
Commas are also used to separate items in a list.
For example:
The shopping trolley was loaded high with bottles of beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals and cartons of
milk. Note that in a list, the final two items are linked by the word ‗and‘ rather than by a comma.
Commas are used to separate adjectives.
For example:
The boy was happy, eager and full of anticipation at the start of his summer holiday.
As commas represent a pause, it is good practice to read your writing out loud and listen to where you make
natural pauses as you read it. More often than not, you will indicate where a comma should be placed by a natural
pause. Although, the ‗rules‘ of where a comma needs to be placed should also be followed.
For example:
However, it has been suggested that some bees prefer tree pollen.
Full Stop (.)

A full stop should always be used to end a sentence. The full stop indicates that a point has been made and that
you are about to move on to further explanations or a related point.
Less frequently, a series of three full stops (an ellipsis) can be used to indicate where a section of a quotation has
been omitted when it is not relevant to the text, for example:
―The boy was happy… at the start of his summer holiday.‖

23
A single full stop may also be used to indicate the abbreviation of commonly used words as in the following
examples:
Telephone Number = Tel. No.
September = Sept.
Pages = pp.
Exclamation Mark (!)

An exclamation mark indicates strong feeling within a sentence, such as fear, anger or love. It is also used to
accentuate feeling within the written spoken word.
For example:
―Help! I love you!‖
In this way, it can also be used to indicate a sharp instruction
―Stop! Police!‖ or to indicate humour
―Ha! Ha! Ha!‖
The exclamation mark at the end of a sentence means that you do not need a full stop. Exclamation marks are a
poor way of emphasising what you think are important points in your written assignments; the importance of the
point will emphasise itself without a sequence of !!!
in the text. An exclamation mark should only be used when absolutely essential, or when taken from a direct
quote.
The exclamation mark should be used sparingly in formal and semi-formal writing.
Question Mark (?)

The question mark simply indicates that a sentence is asking a question. It always comes at the end of a
sentence:
For example:
Are we at the end?
Note that the question mark also serves as a full stop.
Semi-colon (;)
The semi-colon is perhaps the most difficult sign of punctuation to use accurately. If in doubt, avoid using it
and convert the added material into a new sentence.
As a general rule, the semi-colon is used in the following ways:
When joining two connected sentences. For example:
We set out at dawn; the weather looked promising.
The semi-colon can also be used to assemble detailed lists. For example:
The conference was attended by delegates from Paris, France; Texas, USA; London, UK; Stockholm,
Sweden; Colombo, Sri Lanka; and Mumbai, India.
Colon (:)
The colon within a sentence makes a very pointed pause between two phrases. There are two main uses of the
colon:
It is most commonly used when listing. For example:
She placed the following items into the trolley: beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals and cartons of milk.
Or it can be used within a heading, or descriptive title.
A colon may introduce direct speech

24
A colon separates hours from minutes E.g. 11:30am

A colon introduces an example or an explanation of something already mentioned E.g. The miser had one
wish: to keep all his money.
Apostrophe (’)
The apostrophe, sometimes called an inverted comma has two main uses.
The apostrophe indicates possession or ownership.
For example:
The girl's hat was green, (girl is in the singular).
This shows the reader that the hat belongs to the girl.
The girls' hats were green, (girls in this instance are plural, i.e. more than one girl, more than one hat).
This indicates that the hats belong to the girls.
Another use of the apostrophe is to indicate where a letter is omitted:
For example:
We're going to do this course. (We are going to do this course.)
Isn‘t this a fine example of punctuation? (Is not this a fine example of punctuation?)
The time is now 7 o‘ clock. (The time is now 7 of the clock)
Note that a common mistake is to confuse its with it’s.
It’s indicates to the reader that a letter has been omitted.
For example:
It’s a lovely day is an abbreviated way of saying: It is a lovely day.
Note that in most formal writing, the practice of using abbreviated words is inappropriate.
See also: Common Mistakes in Writing for more on using apostrophes correctly.
Quotation or Speech Marks (“….”)

Quotation or speech marks are used when quoting someone else's speech or writing.
For example:
My grandpa said, "Share your chocolates with your friends."
Hyphen (-)
The hyphen is used to link words together.
For example:
sub-part
eighteenth-century people
week-end
second-class post
gender-neutral
non-verbal
The hyphen is also used when a word is split between two lines. The hyphen should be placed between syllables
at the end of the upper line and indicates to the reader that the word will be completed on the next line.
Computer applications such as Word Processors can be set to automatically hyphenate words for you, although it
is more common to use extra spacing to avoid hyphenation.
Brackets ( )
Brackets always come in pairs ( ) and are used to make an aside, or a point which is not part of the main flow of a
sentence. If you remove the words between the brackets, the sentence should still make sense.
For example:

25
―The strategy (or strategies) chosen to meet the objectives may need to change as the intervention
continues.‖
Brackets are also used in text citations. E.g. According to Jane (2014) climate change is to blame for the disrupted
rainfall patterns in Kenya,
Slash (/)
Many people use the slash instead of or, and etc. There is, however, a modern convention in gender-neutral
writing to use ‗she/ he‘.
Courtesy in writing
Communicating in a business environment involves communicating with individuals. In both written and oral
communication, it is possible to be courteous while being direct and business-oriented. The writer should be
aware of the reader‘s feelings. Most people respond more readily to a positive interaction, according to a study
conducted by the University of North Carolina that found 52 percent of those interviewed said they ―lost work
time worrying about incidents of rudeness.‖
Strategies used:
Proper titled
Everyone appreciates having the correct titles attached to their name. If a person is a doctor or if a woman is
married, they expect to have the correct salutation in a business letter. E.g. Mr., Mrs., Miss, Dr, Hon e.t.c.
Proper greetings
The standard and most widely accepted way that a greeting is used to open a letter is ―Dear,‖ followed by the
proper salutation, and the person‘s last name. If you write a letter without using this standard opening, it may
immediately alienate your reader. Also, the greeting of ―To Whom it May Concern,‖ often comes off as cold or
distant.
Proper tone
You should always try to use the appropriate tone or attitude in your business correspondence. The better you
know someone, the more informal the tone can be. However, in most business settings, the tone should remain
somewhat formal. This formal tone relays the fact that your message is courteous, but should also be taken
seriously. The proper tone should make the reader comfortable, while maintaining a certain level of respect.
Clarity
Courteous writing should be respectful, clear, and concise. Clarity is important because it does not waste
valuable time. Confusing messages will often be perceived as wasteful by the reader. Clarity of thought and
purpose is another essential element of a courteous letter.
Use Nondiscriminatory Language

Nondiscriminatory language is language that treats all people equally. It does not use any discriminatory words,
remarks, or ideas. It is very important that the business writer communicate in a way that expresses equality and
respect for all individuals. Discriminatory language can come between your message and your reader. Make sure
your writing is free of sexist language and free of bias based on such factors as race, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual
orientation, and disability. Use neutral job titles. E.g. use the word Chairman but not Chairperson
Stress the Benefits For the Reader
Write from the reader's perspective. Instead of simply writing from the perspective of what the reader can do for
you, write in a way that shows what you can do for the reader. A reader will often read a document wondering
"What's in it for me?" It is your job to tailor your document accordingly.
Stressing reader benefits will help you to avoid sounding self-centered and uninterested.
Use positive words and avoid negative words.
What is a paragraph?

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A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to write good paragraphs
will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly
assists your readers in following a piece of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't
presented in an organized fashion, you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).
The Basic Rule: Keep one idea to one paragraph
The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin to transition into a
new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some simple ways to tell if you are on the same topic or a new
one. You can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a single paragraph. You can also have
several points in a single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single points
start to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the route
to go.
Elements of a paragraph
To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity, Coherence, A Topic
Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these traits overlap. Using and adapting the
following elements to your writings will help you construct effective paragraphs.
Unity
The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with one focus or major point of
discussion, it should not end with another or wander within different ideas.
Coherence
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader.
A topic sentence
A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal
with. Although not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the fact that topic sentences can
occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy
way to make sure your reader understands the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the
beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general rule for less experienced writers, although it is not the only
way to do it). Regardless of whether you include an explicit topic sentence or not, you should be able to easily
summarize what the paragraph is about.
Adequate development
The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and adequately. Again, this varies
from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers should be wary of paragraphs that
only have two or three sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short.
Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:
Use examples and illustrations
Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
Use an anecdote or story
Define terms in the paragraph
Compare and contrast
Evaluate causes and reasons
Examine effects and consequences
Analyze the topic
Describe the topic
Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)
How do I know when to start a new paragraph? You should start
a new paragraph when:

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When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs. If you have an extended
idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its own paragraph.
To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a debate, different points
in an argument, or any other difference.
When your readers need a pause. Breaks between paragraphs function as a short "break" for your readers
—adding these in will help your writing more readable. You would create a break if the paragraph becomes
too long or the material is complex.
When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your introductory and concluding
material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs
depending on their content, length, and the writer's purpose.
.Essay writing
An essay is a short piece of writing that generally shows the author's view on a particular subject. There are many
different kinds of essays, including narrative, descriptive, argumentative and persuasive.
Types of essays
Narrative Essays
The first important thing to remember about a narrative essay is that it tells a story. The author may write about
an experience or event from his or her past
a recent or an ongoing experience or event
something that happened to somebody else, such as a parent or a grandparent
The second important thing about a narrative essay is that the story should have a point. In the final paragraph, the
author should come to an important conclusion about the experience that has just been described.
Descriptive Essays
The purpose of a descriptive essay is to describe a person, place, or thing in such vivid detail that the reader can
easily form a precise mental picture of what is being written about. The author may accomplish this by using
imaginative language, interesting comparisons, and images that appeal to the senses.
Informative/Explanatory Essays
An Informative/Explanatory essay teaches or informs your reader about a subject. This type of essay can
explain how something works, how to perform a task, the steps in a procedure, or why something is the way it is.
Ultimately, the reader should have a better understanding of the subject after reading your paper.
Argumentative essay
The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect,
generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner.
The following steps, however, can be used to write any kind of essay.
Establish Your Topic

Your may be assigned a topic or be asked to choose from among a few topics. The assignment may contain
certain key words that will suggest the content and structure of your
essay. For example, you may be asked to:
 Analyze
 Argue
 Compare and contrast

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 Describe
 Discuss
 Summarize
If you do not understand what you are being asked to do, check with your teacher.
You may be asked to find a topic on your own. Most people find this difficult. Give yourself plenty of time to
think about what you'd like to do. Trying to answer questions you have about a particular subject may lead you
to a good paper idea.
 What subject(s) are you interested in?

 What interests you most about a particular subject?
 Is there anything you wonder about or are puzzled about with regard to that
subject?
Be sure your topic is narrow enough so that you can write about it in detail in the number of pages that you are
allowed. For example, say you are asked to write a 1-page essay about someone in your family. Since you only
have a limited number of pages, you may want to focus on one particular characteristic of that person, or one
particular incident from that person's life, rather than trying to write about that person's entire life. Having a
narrow focus will help you write a more interesting paper.
One method for narrowing down your topic is called brainstorming. Brainstorming is a useful way to let
ideas you didn't know you had come to the surface.
 Sit down with a pencil and paper, or at your computer, and write whatever comes
into your head about your topic, no matter how confused or disorganized.
 Keep writing for a short but specific amount of time, say 3–5 minutes. Don't stop
to change what you've written or to correct spelling or grammar errors.
 After a few minutes, read through what you have written. You will probably
throw out most of it, but some of what you've written may give you an idea you can develop.
 Do some more brainstorming and see what else you can come up with.
Organize Your Ideas
Develop an outline to organize your ideas. An outline shows your main ideas and the order in which you
are going to write about them. Click here to see some sample outlines.
 Write down all the main ideas.
 List the subordinate ideas below the main ideas.
 Avoid any repetition of ideas.
Write a First Draft
Every essay or paper is made up of three parts:
 Introduction
 Body
 Conclusion
The introduction is the first paragraph of the paper. It often begins with a general statement about the topic and
ends with a more specific statement of the main idea of your paper. The purpose of the introduction is to

 let the reader know what the topic is
 inform the reader about your point of view
 arouse the reader's curiosity so that he or she will want to read about your topic
The body of the paper follows the introduction. It consists of a number of paragraphs in which you develop
your ideas in detail.
 Limit each paragraph to one main idea. (Don't try to talk about more than one idea
per paragraph.)
 Prove your points continually by using specific examples and quotations.
 Use transition words to ensure a smooth flow of ideas from paragraph to paragraph.
The conclusion is the last paragraph of the paper. Its purpose is to

 summarize your main points, leaving out specific examples
 restate the main idea of the paper
IV.
Revise the First Draft
Try to set aside your draft for a day or two before revising. This makes it easier to view your work
objectively and see any gaps or problems.
Revising involves rethinking your ideas, refining your arguments, reorganizing paragraphs, and rewording
sentences. You may need to develop your ideas in more detail, give more evidence to support your claims, or
delete material that is unnecessary. For more advice on revising and a sample revision, click here.
Read your paper out loud. This sometimes makes it easier to identify writing that is awkward or unclear.
Have somebody else read the paper and tell you if there's anything that's unclear or confusing.
Proofread the Final Draft

Look for careless errors such as misspelled words and incorrect punctuation and capitalization.
Errors are harder to spot on a computer screen than on paper. If you type your paper on a computer, print out a
copy to proofread. Remember, spell checkers and grammar checkers don't always catch errors, so it is best not
to rely on them too much.
Functional writing
Functional writing is writing that is meant to fulfill real life purposes, such as: making a request or giving advice,
inviting someone for a visit or to a function, applying for something e.t.c. Functional writing includes the writing
of business letters, memorandum, notices, agenda, minutes, advertisements, e-mail, facsimile and press releases.
Business letters/ E-mail Functions of a

business letter
 To provide a convenient and inexpensive means to communicate without personal contact.
To seek or give information
To provide evidence of transactions entered into.
To provide a record for future reference
Types of business letters

Letters of inquiry
Letters answering a request
Claim and adjustment letters
Credit letters
Collection letters
Sales letters
Employment letters
Social letters
Memorandum
Parts of a business letter

Letterhead
It is also known as heading or address. It appears at the top of the page. It contains the name of the company,
address, logo, telephone number etc.
Date
It enables quick reference in future and helps in prompt action and filing. It consists of the day, month and year.
Reference
It is written below the dateline close to the left margin. It serves to identify either the department or the section
from which the letter is being sent or the particular file in which the
correspondence is to be found. The purpose of the reference is to enable replies to be linked with the previous
correspondence and also to send replies to these letters to the proper official or department.
Inside address
It contains the name and address of the firm or the individual to whom the letter is written. It helps the outward
clerk to write the same address on the cover. It should be written below the reference line.
Salutation
This is the greeting part which commences the letter and precedes the message erg Dear Sir, Dear Madam,
Dear Mr. Kariuki etc.
Body of the letter
Reference or subject
It is a brief one-line mention of the major theme of the letter right in the beginning. It is written below the
salutation.
Opening paragraph
Main paragraph
It contains the subject matter of the letter. It should be clear, simple and correct.
Closing paragraph
Complementary close
It is a polite way of ending a letter e.g. Yours Faithfully, Yours sincerely etc.
Signature
It is the assent of the writer to the subject matter of the letter and is a practical necessity. It contains the
writer‘s name, status, department etc. it is just below the complementary close.
Enclosures
Carbon copies
Letters sent outside the organization may be brought to the attention of senior official for their information. This
is done by sending a carbon copy of the original to the official concerned. It is indicated by typing on the
originals the abbreviation ‗c.c‘ and the name of the person to whom the letter is sent at the foot of the page on the
left hand side.
Memorandum A memo is:

 a short document used for communicating inside an organisation It contains To, From,
Date, Subject Headings and Message sections
Elements of a memo
Memos should have the following sections and content:
Main heading. The heading ‗memo‘ or ‗memorandum‘ makes clear the purpose of the document and ensures
that it stands out.
'To' section. Contains the name of the receiver.

‗From' section. Contains the name of the sender.
'Date' section.
A Subject Heading. It should be brief and exact. It makes clear immediately what the memo is about.
First paragraph. This provides a background, context or reason for the information or instructions contained in
the second paragraph. It should be kept short.
Second paragraph. This is the actual message, information, instructions or reminder and should follow logically
from the first paragraph.
Initials of the sender. In some organizations the writer will add his/ her initials at the foot of the memo.
C. Press release
A press release, news release, media release, press statement or video release is a written or recorded
communication directed at members of the news media for the purpose of announcing something newsworthy.
Typically, they are mailed, faxed, or e-mailed to assignment editors and journalists at newspapers, magazines,
radio stations, television stations or television networks.
Steps follow in coming up with a good press release
1. Grab attention with a good headline.
The beginning of a press release -- just as with a magazine article, book or promotional pamphlet
is the most important. A strong headline will pull in journalists seeking good stories. Your headline should be
as engaging as it is accurate.
2. Get right to the point in the first paragraph.
Because reporters are busy people, you must assume that they will only read the first sentence and then scan the
rest. Get the message of your press release out quickly. Every important point should be addressed in the first
few sentences. The subsequent paragraphs should be for supporting information.
3. Include hard numbers.
Include in the press release hard numbers that support the significance of your product or announcement. If
you're claiming a trend, you need proof to back it up. Quantify your argument and it will become much more
compelling.
4. Make it grammatically flawless.

Proofread your press release -- and let a few other people proofread it as well -- before sending it out. Even a
single mistake can dissuade a reporter from taking you seriously.
5. Include quotes whenever possible.
Including a good quote from someone in the company or close to the product/event can give a human element
to the press release, as well as being a source of information in its own right.
6. Include your contact information.
A common oversight that can render a press release ineffectual is a lack of contact information for reporters to
follow up with. Whether you or someone else at the company is the point of contact, don't forget to include an
email address and phone number on the release (preferably at the top of the page).
7. One page is best -- and two is the maximum.

As with most good writing, shorter is usually better. Limit yourself to one page, though two pages are acceptable.
This will also force you to condense your most important information into a more readable document --
something journalists are always looking for.
8. Provide access to more information.
You must limit your press release to one page (or two, if you must), but that doesn't mean you can't show people
how to learn more. Providing relevant links to your company's website, where prospective writers can learn more
about your mission and what you've already accomplished is a crucial element to the release. Don't make
journalists/ writers search on their own for more information -- guide them as quickly as possible to your website,
and keep their interest piqued.
Advertisement
It is a paid, non-personal communication from an identified sponsor using mass media to persuade or
influence an audience.
Uses of adverts
To promote products and services
To promote vacant posts
To announce special events and functions
To publicize changes in the organization
A good advertisement should

Attract the reader‘s attention (Attention)
Get the reader‘s interest by mentioning something that will appeal to them (Interest)
Arouse the reader‘s desire to buy, to attend a function, to find out more or to contact the writer (Desire)
Lead the audience into an action (Action).
Tips for writing effective advertisements

Know your advertising objective
Start with the end in mind. What do you want the reader to do? Do you want them to call you? Do you want the
reader to send an application in? Do you want them to buy something? Once you know your objective that
everything in your ad should be designed to accomplish that objective.
A lot of people think that what they want is exposure to as many people as possible. If you have lots of money to
spend then that could be a good idea. But, if you are concerned about your budget and you want to minimize
your cost per sale then I suggest you are better off with an ad that is geared toward creating a response.
Get Their Attention

Potential clients get flooded with marketing messages every day. If you want to stand out from the crowd you
will need to craft a headline that will grab their attention.
You need to get their attention but it also needs to be relevant to your product or service and be truthful.
Use Plain English
Eliminate big words with lots of syllables and technical jargon because too many people will not be able
understand you.
Write About The Benefits
Features describe and benefits sell. Don't make the mistake of writing only about the features of your product.
Write also about the benefits.
Notice writing
A notice is a very short piece of writing which is usually formal in style. It is widely used by individuals and
organizations to announce events and celebrations, births and deaths, occasions like inaugurations or sales, to issue
public instructions, to make appeals and to extend invitations. Most notices are meant to be pinned up or pasted on
special boards meant for this specific purpose only. There must be one or more such notice board in the school and
other organization. Whereas notices issued by the Government departments and other big organization also appear
in various newspapers.
Purpose/ uses of a notice
To announce social events
To report on matters of interest to the staff
To inform staff of new procedures
To advertise posts for internal appointments
To remind staff of company procedures
How to Write a Notice?

Writing an effective notice is a kind of art that can be acquired with practice with keeping some basic points in
mind while writing them out. Your notice should give complete information and must be written in a clear and
thought through style and easily understandable language.
Content that a good effective notice must include in it are:
Name of the Organization, Institution or Office issuing it.
Date of issuing of a particular notice.
The heading ‗Notice to make it very clear.
A suitable description/ eye-catching caption or heading to hold the immediate attention of the reader.
Purpose for which it has been written like calling a meeting, drawing attention, making an appeal or informing
general public about some issue of concern etc.
Details of schedule i.e. date, time, venue, programme, duration etc. in case the notice is about an event to be
organized in the near future.
SUMMARY
Def 1: A summary is a condensed version of a larger reading.
Def 2: A summary is a shortened version of a text that highlights its key points.
The primary purpose of a summary is to give an accurate and objective representation of what the work says.
To summarize, you must read a passage closely, finding the main ideas and supporting ideas.
Then you must briefly write down those ideas in a few sentences or a paragraph.
A summary is not a rewrite of the original piece and should not be long. To write a summary, use your own
words to express briefly the main idea and relevant details of the piece you have read. Your purpose in writing
the summary is to give the basic ideas of the original reading.
What was it about and what did the author want to communicate?
A summary:
Is an essential condensation in your own words.
Answers the question ―what is the author really saying?‖
Is the result of careful ―listening‖ to the author.
Remains faithful to the author's emphasis and interpretation.
Does not disagree with or critique the author's opinions.
Importance of summarizing
The process of summarizing enables you to understand the original text better.
It enables anybody who does not want to read the entire text have to know what it is all
about.
The knowledge you gain by summarizing makes it possible for you to analyze and critique the original text.
General rules/ considerations in summary writing

You should not include your own ideas or interpretations. Do not put in your opinion the issue or topic discussed
in the original piece
Do not rewrite the original piece.
Keep your summary short.
Use your own words.
Refer to the central and main ideas of the original piece.
Read with who, what, when, where, why and how questions in mind
Steps in summary writing

Skim (read quickly) the text. Don't take any notes this time -- just take in the minimum about the basic plot of
the book or article. You'll be able to concentrate on the smaller things later.
 Think of the focus while you're reading. Get down the most basic of questions: Who? What? When? Where?
Why? How? This bare bones thinking can help you to effectively and quickly write a pertinent summary.
Read the text thoroughly. In order to write an accurate summary, you must understand what you're reading.
Try reading with the author's purpose in mind.
 Take notes and highlight as you read. Take note of the subheadings, even if there aren't any. Dividing it into
sections in your mind will help you organize your summary.
 Consider why you have been assigned the text. Write down the author's main point and the main points of
each section. Look for the writer's thesis and underline it. This is the main idea of the work.
Outline the article. This serves as the skeleton of your summary. Write down the main points of each section,
but do not go into minor detail. synopsis
 It'll benefit you to write it in your own words now; that will save you time translating later. If you can't get
around copying from the original, put quotation marks around it. Only do this with incredibly important
sentences that cannot be reworded.
Start writing the summary with a clear identification of the work. This automatically lets your readers know
your intentions and that you're covering the work of another author. Clearly identify (in the present tense) the
background information needed for your summary i.e. the type of work, title, author, and main point.
Summarize the piece as a whole. Omit nothing important and strive for overall coherence through
appropriate transitions. Write using "summarizing language." Your reader needs to be reminded that this is not
your own work. Use phrases like the article claims, the author suggests, etc.
Present the material in a neutral fashion. Your opinions, ideas, and interpretations should be left in your brain --
don't put them into your summary. Be conscious of choosing your words. Only include what was in the original
work.
Be concise. This is a summary -- it should be much shorter than the original piece. If you're working on an
article, give yourself a target length of 1/4 the original article.
Conclude with a final statement. The final statement should reflect the significance of the book or article from
the author's standpoint. Be careful not to include in the conclusion any of your own assumptions or opinions.
Check for accuracy. Check whether the summary is making the same points as the article itself. Make sure
you have not omitted anything important
Revise your work. Make sure that the wording is appropriate and there is use of transitions to make it as easy to
read as possible. Look out for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. Your credibility will seriously be
questioned if your summary contains these mistakes.
REPORT WRITING SKILLS
Definition:
A report refers to information that has been carefully gathered and logically presented.
A report is a document which investigates a specific subject according to a prescribed/ given format and for a
clearly defined readership/ audience who normally are those in superior positions within a company or
organization.
Features of a good report

Factual. A good report should be based on facts and not imagination. The facts should be accurate.
Clarity. A good report is absolutely clear. Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. The report writer must
proceed systematically. He should make his/ her purpose clear, define his/ her sources, state the findings and
finally make the necessary recommendations. The report should be divided into short paragraphs giving them
headings, and insert other suitable signposts to achieve greater clarity.
Objective. It should be impartial. It should not have personal opinion, bias or prejudice.
Orderly / structured in a predetermined fashion. Its contents should be clearly and logically arranged.
Detailed. All relevant information should be included in the report.
Precise. In a good report the writer is very clear about the exact purpose of writing it. Precision gives a kind
of unity and coherence to the report.
Brevity. A good report should be brief. But brevity should not be achieved at the cost of clarity or completeness.
Grammatical accuracy.
Types of reports
Oral Report
Oral Report- is a presentation of factual information to an audience by word of mouth.
Written report
Written reports are a written document describing the findings of some individual or group and are often used to
display the result of an experiment, investigation, or inquiry.
Management reports
These are reports used by business managers to monitor the success of their businesses and operations.
These reports may include financial, labor and traffic reports.
Operations procedure
This is a prescribed procedure to be followed routinely. It is a particular course of action intended to
achieve a result.
Formal reports
They are official in nature. They contain information resulting from investigations. They are about major issues
of importance. They are mostly used by a committee or a working party. The findings are directed at the
appointing authority.
Informal reports
They are not official in nature. They are produced by junior clerks and personnel.
Routine reports
These are reports submitted on a fixed time span e.g. daily basis, weekly basis, monthly basis or even annually.
They may cover petty expenses on daily basis or attendance of workers on daily basis. They may also cover
various divisions or units of production on a daily basis.
Statutory reports
These are those reports which have a legal status and they are required by law e.g. auditor general‘s, financial
reports or chairman‘s report to the annual general meeting of the company‘s stakeholders.
Financial reports
These are reports prepared by the manager of the finance department or the controller of finance. They provide
valuable information on the financial structure, the effectiveness of the use of capital, the need and ways of
reorganizing capital resources etc.
Role/ uses of reports in an organization
Reports facilitate decision making and planning
Reports provide reliable data which can be used in the planning and decision making process. It acts as a source
of reliable information for long term planning and decision making.
Reports facilitate framing of personnel policies
Certain reports relating to employees are useful while preparing personnel policies such as promotion
policy, training policy and welfare facilities to employees.
Reports used give information to shareholders
Some company reports are prepared yearly for the benefit of shareholders. Annual reports for example, are
prepared and sent to all shareholders before the AGM because they give information about the progress of the
company.
Reports are a used for internal communication

Reports acts as an effective means of communication within the organization. They provide feedback to
employees and are prepared for the information and guidance of others connected with the matter / problem.
Reports disclose unknown information

Reports provide information, which may not be known previously. The committee members collect data,
draw conclusions and provide information which may be new to all concerned parties.
Report gives Information to employees
Reports are available to managers and departments for internal use. They are widely used by the departments for
guidance. Report provide a feedback to employees and are useful for their self-improvement.
Report gives reliable permanent information
The information provided by a report is a permanent addition to the information available to the office. We have
census reports (prepared since last 100 years) which are used even today for reference purpose.
Reports give complete & updated information
A report provides complete, factual and an up-to-date information about a particular matter or subject.
Steps to take in preparation for report writing

All reports need to be clear, concise and well structured. With careful planning, the writing of a report will be
made much easier. The following are the steps to take in report writing.
Step One: Understanding the purpose of the report
You must understand the purpose of your report as described in your report instructions. Consider who the
report is for and why it is being written. Understand the terms of reference, scope and purpose of the report.
Step Two: Gathering and selecting information

Once you are clear about the purpose of your report, you need to begin to collect data relevant to the report. Data
may come from a variety of sources, and may be collected using data collection tools like questionnaires,
interviews schedules or by surveying.
Step Three: Organising your material

Once you have gathered information you need to decide what will be included and in what sequence it should
be presented. Begin by grouping together points that are related. These may form topics/ sections or chapters.
Choose an order for your material that is logical and easy to follow.
Step Four: Analyze your material

Before you begin to write your first draft of the report, take time to consider and make notes on the points you
will make using the facts and evidence you have gathered. Ask yourself what conclusions can be drawn from the
material? What are the limitations or flaws in the evidence? Do certain pieces of evidence conflict with one
another? Relate the information you have gathered to the problem or issue described in the report brief.
Step five: Write the draft

Use short words and sentences. Avoid use of jargon. Avoid ambiguity.
Step six: Revise and proof read the draft (Refer to notes on paragraph development)
General report format guidelines

When you write a report, you will want to make it easy to read and understand. Here are some guidelines to
apply to any report you write.
Use lists: Whenever you can, help your reader by using lists. Give your lists visual emphasis by bullets.
Use headings and subheadings: Use headings and subheadings to guide your reader through the
organization of the report and list them in the table of contents. Each section should have a clear topic
statement to let the reader know what will be included in the section.
Use clear typefaces, such as Times New Roman or Arial: Avoid using more than one typeface in a
document. Bold section headings for emphasis.
Use white space to enhance your information: Dense blocks of text are difficult to read and will make it
more difficult for your readers to find the information they need. For further information on this topic, see the
OWL resource on document design, HATS.
The structure of a report
Preliminaries
Title Page/ cover page

Executive Summary
Terms of Reference
Table of contents
Acknowledgements
Body
Introduction
Methods
Findings
Discussion
Conclusion
Recommendations
III.Appendices
Glossary of Technical Terms

Title Page
It explicitly describes the purpose of the report. It may include could be your name, the date and for whom the
report is written.
Executive Summary
It gives an overview of subject matter, methods of analysis, findings, and recommendations in brief detail.
Terms of Reference
This section gives precise indication of the area covered by the report. Under this heading you could include a
brief explanation of who will read the report (audience) why it was written (purpose) and how it was written
(methods).
Table of contents
It lists the different chapters and/or headings together with the page numbers. Your contents page should be
presented in such a way that the reader can quickly scan the list of headings and locate a particular part of the
report. You may want to number chapter headings and subheadings in addition to providing page references.
Whatever numbering system you use, be sure that it is clear and consistent throughout.
Introduction
The introduction sets the scene for the main body of the report. It explains the aims and objectives of the
report in detail. It identifies any problems or limitations in the scope of the report gives and a description of
research methods, the parameters of the research and any necessary background history.
Methods
Information under this heading may include: a list of equipment used; explanations of procedures followed;
relevant information on materials used including sources of materials and details of any necessary preparation;
reference to any problems encountered and subsequent changes in procedure.
Findings
This section should include a summary of the results of the investigation or experiment together with any
necessary diagrams, graphs or tables of gathered data that support your results. Present your results in a logical
order without comment. Discussion of your results should take place in the main body (Discussion) of the report.
Discussion
This is where you discuss the findings. The facts and evidence you have gathered should be analysed and
discussed with specific reference to the problem or issue. If your discussion section is lengthy you might divide it
into section headings. Your points should be grouped and arranged in an order that is logical and easy to follow.
Use headings and subheadings to create a clear structure for your material. Use bullet points to present a series of
points in an easy-to-follow list. As with the whole report, all sources used should be acknowledged and correctly
referenced.
Conclusion
It describes that section of the report which interprets the facts and observations presented in the findings. No
new material should be introduced in the conclusion.
Recommendations
This section is used to put forward a future course of action concerning the topic under investigation.
Appendices
This is where you include all the supporting information you have used or is contained in the body of the
report. This might include tables, graphs, questionnaires, surveys or transcripts.
Bibliography
It lists all published sources referred to in your report. It is listed alphabetically. There are different styles of using
references and bibliographies. Refer to the study guide Referencing and Bibliographies and check your
departmental handbook for guidelines. Texts which you consulted but did not refer to directly could be grouped
under a separate heading such as 'Background Reading' and listed in alphabetical order using the same format as in
your bibliography.
Acknowledgments
Where appropriate you may wish to acknowledge the assistance of particular organisations or individuals who
provided information, advice or help.
Glossary of Technical Terms
This is a brief, clear description of each term used. You can also include in this section explanations of the
acronyms (short forms), abbreviations or standard units used in your report.
Audience analysis
Research shows that communicators who understand their audience are more successful in achieving their
communication goals. Understanding your audience can help you answer questions like:
How much do they already know about my topic?

What do they think about my topic?
What are their goals?
To optimize your communication, you will need to know not only who your audience is, but also what they need
from your communication task.
To understand your identified audience, start by gathering demographic and psychographic information.
Keep careful notes you can refer to as necessary.
a. Demographics
These are statistical data relating to the population and particular groups within it. E.g age, education, level,
gender, income level, geographic region, cultural, and ethnic background.
b. Psychographics
This is the study and classification of people according to their interests, activities, and opinions.
E.g attitudes, beliefs, values, loyalties, knowledge level, and lifestyle.
Data collection
Data collection refers to the gathering of information to serve or prove some facts. Data collection is
aimed at proving or refuting some facts.
Purpose of data collection

To obtain information
To keep on record
To make decisions about important issues
To pass on information to others
Sources of data
There are two major sources of data. These are primary sources and secondary sources.
Primary sources
This is information gathered directly from respondents. They provide first-hand information or original data.
e.g.interviews, diaries, letters, journals, original hand-written manuscripts, newspaper and magazine clippings,
government documents, etc.This is through questionnaires, interviews, focused group discussions, observation
and experimental studies. It involves creating new data.
Secondary sources
This is data gathered and recorded by someone else prior to and for a purpose other that the current project. This is
data that is being reused usually in a different context e.g. textbooks, review articles, biographies, historical films,
music and art, articles about people and events from the past
Data collection instruments/ tools
Questionnaires, interview schedules e.t.c
Data analysis
Data analysis refers to examining what has been collected in a survey or experiment and making deductions and
inferences. The methods or statistics used for data analysis are influenced by the stated objectives, research
questions or hypothesis, and the research design used.
Reading skills
Improving your reading skills will reduce unnecessary reading time and enable you to read in a more focused
and selective manner. You will also be able to increase your levels of understanding and concentration.
Reading for study
You already use a range of reading styles in everyday situations. The normal reading style that you might use for
reading a novel is to read in detail, focusing on every word in sequence from start to finish. If it is a magazine you
are reading, you might flick through the pages to see which articles are of interest. When you look in a telephone
directory for a particular name, you purposefully ignore all other entries and focus your attention on spotting the
name you want. These everyday reading skills can be applied to your studies.
To improve your reading skills you need to:
 have clear reading goals;
 choose the right texts;
 use the right reading style;
 use note taking techniques.
Reading goals
Clear reading goals can significantly increase your reading efficiency.
Use your reading goals to help you identify the information that is relevant to your current task.
Choosing a text
Assess the text to see if it contains information that is relevant to your reading goals.
Reading style Scanning
Scanning is where you pass your eyes speedily over a section of text in order to find particular words or phrases
that are relevant to your current task. You can scan:
the introduction or preface of a text;
the first or last paragraphs of chapters;
the concluding or summarizing chapter of a text
Skimming is the process of speedy reading for general meaning. Concentrate on identifying the central or main
points. Use this technique to:
pre-view a selection of text prior to detailed reading;
refresh your understanding of a selection of text following detailed reading.
Detailed reading and note taking

Once you have selected useful information, you can begin to read in detail. Note taking techniques
provide a useful aid to reading. Use:
underlining and highlighting to pick out what seem to you the most central or important words and phrases. Do
this in your own copy of texts or on photocopies - never on borrowed texts;
keywords to record the main headings as you read. Use one or two keywords for each main point. Keywords
can be used when you don't want to mark the text;
questions to encourage you to take an active approach to your reading. Record your questions as you read.
They can also be used as prompts for follow up work;
summaries to check you have understood what you have read. Pause after a section of text and put what you
have read in your own words. Skim over the text to check the accuracy of your summary, filling in any
significant gaps.
CONDUCTING MEETINGS AND MINUTE WRITING Definitions

 A meeting is a gathering of two or more people that has been convened for the purpose of achieving a common
goal through verbal interaction, such as sharing information or reaching agreement. Meetings may occur face to
face or virtually, as mediated by communications technology, such as a telephone conference call, a skyped
conference call or a videoconference.
 Formal or informal deliberative assembly of individuals called to debate certain issues and problems, and to
take decisions.
Formal meetings are held at definite times, at a definite place, and usually for a definite duration to follow an
agreed upon agenda. The opposite is true for informal meetings.
Minutes
They are notes recounting the transactions occurring at a meeting or official proceeding. Minutes describe the
events of the meeting, starting with a list of attendees, a statement of the issues considered by the participants, and
related responses or decisions for the issues.
Role of Meetings
Meetings are an important organizational tool as they can be used to:
Develop ideas To give training
Solve problems To plan and prepare for action
Make decisions To resolve differences and misunderstandings
To understand a situation, exchange ideas and To generate enthusiasm and seek cooperation
experiences To review past performance and evaluate it
To inform, explain, present ideas To create a feeling of continuity and solidarity in a
To give and get feedback on new ideas body‘s working.
Types of meeting
Types of meetings will naturally vary between different organisations. Below are some type of meetings that
take place in an organization:
Annual General Meeting (AGM)

A formal meeting, held annually, where, those responsible for running the company (the directors) meet with
those who own it (the shareholders). The AGM for a company must be held annually.
Extraordinary General Meeting (EGM)

This is a general meeting which is called to deal with urgent matters which require resolution between AGMs.
Board meetings
Committee meetings
These are meetings involving a group of people who have been drawn from the larger group for the purposes of
managing specific issues.
Management meetings
Management meetings can take many forms depending on the structure of the organisation. These meetings
involve managerial decision making at various levels. For example, some meetings will involve the senior
management team, while others will involve middle management or will cover both groups.
Departmental meetings
These are periodic meetings attended by all departmental staff to discuss and address departmental issues (e.g.
reviewing performance, setting objectives, reporting on the outcome of actions taken and discussing any other
matters in connection with departmental operations).
Steering group meetings
A steering group may be formed to take a high-level overview of a project. The group is usually composed of
senior executives, project leaders and possibly external advisors to the organisation.
Team briefings
These are meetings held by the team leader to discuss issues with members of the team (e.g.
progress reviews, allocation of tasks, setting objectives, performance and motivational issues).
One-off informal meetings
These are meetings that take place anywhere at any time. They may be informal discussions between one or
two employees or a small group.
Role/duties of the chairperson

To prepare the agenda. This is a list of items to be discussed.
To declare the meeting formally open at the appropriate time.
To introduce each item for discussion together with the member who is to talk about it where necessary.
To ensure that the meeting works through each agenda at a reasonable pace.
To make sure that no one is allowed to dominate the discussion by seeking the views of everyone in the
meeting.
To intervene if the discussion becomes heated or if personal animosity or abuse seems
likely.
To supervise voting procedures, count votes and announce the results.
To ensure that a minutes of the previous meeting are produced by the secretary and circulated to each
member for agreement at the next meeting.
Roles/ duties of the secretary

To send out notices of the meeting in good time to all the members.
Together with the chair person, they draw agenda and to send copies of it to the members in good time before
the meeting.
To circulate among members any documents that might be necessary to enable them to contribute fully to the
discussion of the matters listed on the agenda.
To make arrangements for the accommodation of members who have to travel a long distance to attend the
meetings.
Planning a meeting
Planning improves participation by ensuring that discussion is on a single topic and that the members are
well prepared for the meeting. This is the responsibility of the Chairperson, Secretary and Executive,
depending on the type of organization.
Planning should include the following:
Notification: Everyone should been notified of the date, time and venue of the meeting.
Preparing the agenda: The agenda is a list of the most important issues for the members to discuss. It is drawn
from the Matters Arising from the previous meeting and from the discussions of the Executive or Secretariat.
Conducting a meeting
The chair calls the meeting to order at the scheduled start time even if someone is running
late.
Respect the schedules of your meeting participants and end the meeting on time as well. If you can't cover all of
the points within the allotted time, move it to the agenda of the very next meeting.
Ask a secretary or other meeting participant to take minutes at every business meeting so that everyone will recall
what was discussed and decisions made.
Pass out a written meeting agenda to each participant to clarify the direction of the meeting. Pass out the
previous meeting's minutes as well.
Introduce any guests in attendance at your business meeting before you get started.
Summarize the purpose of the meeting and what you want to accomplish at the very beginning. Then start
with the first item in your agenda.
Follow your agenda closely and do not allow meeting participants to veer off of the order of issues to discuss.
Prohibit meeting participants from insulting, talking over, talking loudly, belittling or raising his voice to other
members at the meeting. This causes productivity to suffer. If someone is being repeatedly violating these basic
rules of conduct at your meeting, ask him to leave.
Transition to each new item on your agenda with finality and do not backtrack. Moderate the meeting if necessary
by giving each member the go-ahead to speak his mind on the issue. Ask each person to limit her point to two
minutes
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End your meeting on a positive note that inspires action. Summarize what each member must do from this
point forward to accomplish the goals and issues discussed.
Advantages of Meetings:
It Saves time:
This is because one can meet a large number of people at a time.
Improve decision:
Improved decision can be taken through meeting. This is because every matter is discussed considering the
pros and cons of an issue. A Proverb says, ―Two heads are better than one.‖
Information Sharing
A key advantage of meetings, from those held within the office among staff to meetings between a company and
its clients, is that they provide an opportunity to share information. This could be as simple as sharing updates on
financials or recognizing new employees to more complex issues, such as contract negotiations, new client
presentations or addressing problems with an account. An actual meeting pinpoints a time and place to have in-
depth discussions without other distractions or work getting in the way.
Social and emotional support:
Members get personal support from each other when they meet and exchange ideas.
Feeling of being consulted:
Members get the feeling that they have been consulted and this is useful in getting their intelligent and
willing cooperation.
Idea development:
Ideas are systematically thought about, analyzed and improved in the meeting
Various interest groups represented:
In a meeting many interest groups can be represented and minorities can also be given due attention.
Disadvantages:
Expensive:
Meetings are expensive to arrange – they require a venue, paperwork, prior communication, and travelling by the
attendees.
Open to disruption:
Formalities: There are many formalities to hold on a meeting. Agenda, minutes, regulations are
needed for a valid meeting.
Challenges faced in conducting of meetings

Not finishing on time
Meetings often run overtime and consequently many agenda items don't get adequate coverage or don't even get
covered at all.
Difficulty in making decisions

Some meetings seem to drag on as group members struggle to reach consensus and make decisions. The
responsibility for coming to decisions rests squarely with the chair or leader.
Dominant Participants
Dominant participants often suppress collaborative problem solving and creativity among participants. The
chairperson needs to see all that members are given equal opportunities to contribute.
Silent Participants
Some people are quiet in meetings for different reasons. Some people are reticent/ reserved by nature. Others
are fearful that their opinions will be ridiculed and dismissed. Some are not comfortable speaking in the
presence of strangers.
Rehashing Decisions
Issues that were discussed and decided on in previous meetings sometimes re-emerge to be rehashed. This
can be very discouraging to the group or committee. Some reasons for this include:
People were not aware that a conclusive decision was actually made regarding a specific
issue.
People recall that a decision was made, but the record of it is not available.
Dominant participants pushed through a decision in a previous meeting and silent participants begin to
speak up afterwards.
Key persons don't attend
When key members and/or staff don't attend meetings, decisions may be made that are later questioned and
not implemented as hoped. As a chairperson, you can help ensure that key players attend meetings and
provide input when needed.
Challenges in minute writing
It is difficult to know exactly what has been agreed upon when members are not sticking to the point and lots
of different suggestions are being at once.
The discussion moving from one agenda to another before it has been exhaustively discussed.
Everyone talking at once, such that you can‘t follow the discussion
Where there is a long and confusing discussion and you don‘t know which bits are important to write
down.
Where the secretary wants to contribute at the same time write the minutes.
Being nervous about getting minutes writing right.
Twelve Qualities of an Effective Meeting
 Well-prepared
 People understand and carry out their roles
 Efficient and effective meeting process
 Safe, stimulating environment
 Participants able to contribute freely/ Everyone participates
 Full potential of the group is utilized
 Time is used well
 Minimal amount of wheel-spinning
 Clear agreement reached
 Consensus fully supported
 An energized team leaves the room to implement the decisions made
 Clear understanding of who will do what, by when, to follow through on meeting agreements
The characteristics of a good agenda:-

The names of expected attendees.
The exact place date.
The start time for starting the meeting.
Rough indication of the meeting next time.
The time expected to be end.
Objective of the meeting.
Issues discussed and resolved.
Action will taken.
Types of minutes
How you write your minutes should be determined by how they will be used.
Minutes can be informal or formal depending on their purpose and audience.
Action minutes
These are written by internal groups, such as teams or project groups, which meet on a regular basis and the
minutes they produce minutes that emphasize action points without worrying about keeping a detailed account of
how or why decisions were made. The purpose of these minutes is to provide a record of decisions that require
action. Brief notes with lists of action points might be all that is required. As the audience is internal, the style
might be informal with action points listed in a table, and discussion and decisions noted as bullet points.
Often, the minute-taker will be a member of the team or group, and is free to participate in the discussion.
Discursive minutes
Here, discussions and decisions are recorded in paragraphs of full text with full sentences. Usually, decisions are
recorded as having been taken by the committee, or by the members. It is rare to name individuals.
The minute-taker in this case is usually a formally appointed secretary. The secretary has a range of tasks which
includes assisting in setting the agenda; calling for, collating and distributing papers; following up on action
points; and providing briefings to the Chair. The secretary is not expected to contribute to the discussions,
leaving him/ her free to accurately and objectively describe what took place at the meeting without bias or
distraction.
Verbatim minutes
These minutes offer a word-for-word account. The minute-taker is expected to record what was said by all parties.
All statements are directly attributed to a named individual. Verbatim minutes are used to capture what passed at
disciplinary panels. As with discursive minutes, the minute-taker is not expected to contribute as this may
compromise his/her role as an independent and objective observer.
Tense
Minutes should be written in the past tense. As they are a record of a discussion that has taken place, they
always refer to an event in the past:
 It was noted that
 The Chair reported
 The Committee agreed that it would
 Members noted that the papers could be viewed
Minute writing Structuring minutes
As with any piece of writing, it is important to structure your minutes to make them coherent and ensure that they
flow. Structuring your minutes will not be difficult: as minutes are a conventional type of document, there is a
standard structure with certain items that are expected regardless of the type of minutes you are writing.
The structure of minutes is provided by the agenda which provides an outline of what will be discussed and in
what order. Regardless of when an item was actually addressed in the meeting, the minutes should record the
discussion and decisions under the appropriate item on the agenda. The standard items of all minutes are:
Title: the name of the meeting/ committee/ board, date, location and time;
 List of those in attendance: Members present, absent with apology, absent without apology and any
guest/s in attendance.
Preliminaries
This is the introductory part of the meeting. The chairperson calls the meeting to order (time when the
meeting starts id indicated). A prayer may be said. The chairperson mentions the apologies and welcomes the
members.
Minutes of the previous meeting: These will be read at the meeting where members will either agree that they
were a true record of the previous meeting, or they will note corrections to be made to the minutes. Here one
member proposes and another seconds that they are a true record.
Matters arising: confirmation that action points from the previous meeting have been completed.
Business of the day: Agenda
Any other business: this covers discussion of items that were not listed on the agenda;
Adjournment: there being no other business the meeting was adjourned.
Date of next meeting: With time and location if appropriate.
Signing spaces: For the chairperson to sign and indicate the date.
INTERVIEWS
Definition: An interview is a conversation between two or more people (the interviewer and the interviewee)
where questions are asked by the interviewer in order to obtain information from the interviewee. It suggests a
meeting between two or more people for the purpose of getting a view of each other. It is a formal oral
communication in which individuals interact for the purpose of knowing each other.
Purposes of interviews in an organization

Selection of personnel/ Employment purposes
Job or employment interviews are used to select suitable persons on the basis of their qualifications
and experience.
Evaluation of workers
Determining reasons for exit

Organizations conduct exit interviews to determine a person‘s reasons for leaving a company.
To seek information and ideas
Interviews are used as a tool to seek information and ideas that concern a particular issue of importance to
the organization. They are helpful in writing reports.
Interviews in media organizations are done by presenters who are seeking a person‘s ideas or views on
issues of importance to the public.
Security agencies conduct interviews known as interrogations. This is for the purpose of getting information
that is required concerning a case.
Types of interview
Job interviews
The interviewer who is a prospective employer wants to learn about the interviewee who is the jobseeker and
vice versa.
Information interview
Interview seeks information that will contribute towards a decision or basic understanding.
Information flows mainly in one direction.
Persuasive interviews
One person (the persuader) tells another about a new idea/ product/ service or explains why the other should act
on the recommendations. Usually the persuader asks about the other persons needs and shows how the product or
concept is able to meet those needs. The persuader must be skilled enough to be convincing.
Exit interviews
The interviewer usually a superior/ boss try to understand why the influence is leaving the organization or
transferring to another department or division.
The departing employee can often provide some understanding (insight) into whether the business is being
handled effectively or whether things could be improved. The interviewer tends to ask the questions while the
interviewee answers.
Evaluation interviews
Interviews are often involved in the periodic evaluation that some companies make of their workers. They may
be inducted to gather information on matters e.g. worker attitudes, working conditions, managerial
effectiveness, and worker plans.
Counseling interview
Here, a supervisor talks with an employee about their personal problems that are interfering with work
performance. The interviewer is concerned about the welfare of both the employee and the organization. The goal
is to establish the facts, convey the company‘s concern and steer the person towards a source of help.
Conflict-resolution interview
The goal is to bring two parties close together, cause adjustments in perception and attitudes and create a more
productive climate.
Disciplinary interviews
A supervisor tries to correct the behaviour of an employee who is flouting the organization rules and regulations.
The interviewer (supervisor) must not only get the employee to see the reason for the rules and agree to comply
but must also review the facts and explore the person‘s attitude.
Interviewer’s preparation for an interview

As an interviewer you should make the following preparations:
Have a clear picture of the company profile and the nature of the job for which the interview is being held.
Know the type of personality, character or temperament required for the job.
Send interview invitation letters well in advance so as to enable the interviewee prepare adequately. Also
mention the documents the interviewee should carry.
Make proper seating arrangement for the interviewee in the waiting room.
Find a quiet interview room free of interruptions.
Give each member of the interview panel a copy of the candidate‘s curriculum vitae. This will help in preventing
confusion and time wastage.
Decide in advance which member of the panel will initiate the interview.
How to conduct the interview
Welcoming the candidate
Welcome the candidate in exactly the same way you would welcome a friend who visits you at your office or
home. Give the candidate a warm smile and talk to him/ her in a friendly tone of voice.
Contents of the interview
Start talking to the candidate by asking relevant question on things such as qualifications, experience, skills,
attitude, character, drive, aspirations, previous employment, willingness to travel etc.
Parting
Thank the candidate for having come for the interview. It is desirable to give him/ her a specific date in which
the results would be communicated.
Interviewee’s preparation for the interview

Know yourself
Know about the company

Know the profile of the company (probably from its website). Find out as much as possible about its activities,
growth, future prospects etc.
Prepare for the questions
Anticipate the questions that you will probably be asked and prepare answers to them.
Prepare the questions that you would like to ask
If the interviewer does not offer you full information about the company and the job, you may ask questions to
gain this information.
Arriving for the interview
Dress appropriately
You should be dressed for the occasion. Your clothes as well as general appearance should be neat. Finger nails
should be clean, shoes polished and hairstyle appropriate. Lotions, cream and perfumes should be used
sparingly. The accessories should complement your suit or dress.
Take with you your certificates
Take your certificates and other papers that might be of use during the interview.
Arrive for the interview on time.
This is of utmost importance. Try to arrive at the interview venue ten to fifteen minutes before the scheduled
time. This will give you enough time to relax and prepare for the interview.
How to conduct yourself during the interview

Do not be nervous or agitated when entering the interview room. See carefully where you are going and do not trip
over the carpet or the doormat.
Greet the interviewer (s) politely.
Do not sit down until you have been asked to. Then sit in a natural composed manner.
When the interviewer starts conversation, pay attention to what he/ she says. Do not interrupt. Only
respond at the appropriate time.
Give relevant answers to questions asked. Neither give too long or too short answers.
Do not try to make an exhibition of your knowledge. Don‘t boast of your capabilities.
If there is something you do not know, admit it straight away. Do not lie.
Remain calm and friendly throughout the interview. Do not lose temper.
Be positive in your attitude. Express your enthusiasm for the job and the company.
Don‘t keep shifting in your seat. Do not bite or chew your fingernails, or smoothen your hair or keep adjusting
the knot of your necktie. These are signs of nervousness.
When you are asked questions about your previous job, be frank but avoid criticism of your former
employer or colleagues. Mention only the positive, pleasant, and constructive aspects of your earlier
employment.
When the interview is over, don‘t forget to thank the interviewer. You may even tactfully ask when the results
will be made known to you.
If the job is offered, you may accept it immediately or ask for time to think over it, depending upon your
circumstances.
PUBLIC RELATIONS AND CUSTOMER CARE
Definition of public relations: It is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and
mutual understanding between an organisation and its publics.
Public Relations is the discipline which looks after reputation, with the aim of earning understanding
and support and influencing opinion and behaviour.
Role of PR
Internal communications
Communicating with employees. E.g. via in-house letters or suggestion boxes.
Corporate PR
Communicating on behalf of the whole organization. E.g. via press releases, conferences, ethical statements,
visual identity and images.
Media relations
Communicating with journalists, specialists and editors from local, national, and trade media, including
newspapers, magazines, radio, TV and web-based communication. This is via press releases, photo calls, video
news releases, off-the-record briefings and press events.
Business to business communication
Communication with other organizations e.g. suppliers and retailers. This could be through exhibitions,
trade events and newsletters.
Public affairs
Communicating with opinion formers like politicians and monitoring the political environment.
This is via presentations, briefings, private meetings and public speeches.
Community relations/ corporate social responsibility
Communicating with local community, elected representatives, head teachers etc. this is via exhibitions,
presentations, letters, meetings, sport activities and other sponsorships.
Investor relations
Communicating with financial organizations and individuals. This is via newsletters, briefings and events.
Strategic communication
Identification and analysis of a situation, problem and solutions to further the organization‘s goals. This is via
researching, planning and executing a campaign to improve ethical reputation of the organization.
Crisis management
Communicating clear messages in a fast changing situation or emergency. E.g. a PR officer dealing with
media after major rail crash on behalf of the police, hospital or local authority.
Events management and exhibitions
Organizing complex events and exhibitions. E.g. annual conference, press launches and trade shows.
Issues management
Copywriting
Writing for different audiences to high standards of literacy. This is writing press releases, newsletters, web
pages and annual reports.
Publications management
Overseeing print/ media processes, often using new technology e.g. leaflets, internal magazines and websites.
Qualities and Skill Sets of a PRO
Professional approach Creativity

Networking skills Storytelling traits
Interpersonal skills Curiosity
Written and oral communication skills Knowledge of current affairs
Analytical skills Result oriented
Emotional intelligence Self-disciplined
Innovating and troubleshooting skills Tech-savvy
Organization and management skills Competitive
Leadership qualities Constructive thinker
Customer care
This is the work of looking after customers and ensuring their satisfaction with one's business and its goods or
services. Modern consumers are aware of their right to a high standard of customer care.
A customer (sometimes known as a client, buyer, or purchaser) is the recipient of a good, service, product,
or idea, obtained from a seller, vendor, or supplier for a monetary or other valuable consideration.
Types of customers
Loyal Customers- These types of customers are less in numbers but promote more sales and profit as compared
to other customers as these are the ones which are completely satisfied. These customers revisit the organization
over times hence it is crucial to interact and keep in touch with them on a regular basis and invest much time and
effort with them. Loyal customers want individual attention and that demands polite and respectful responses
from supplier.
Discount Customers- Discount customers are also frequent visitors but they are only a part of business when
offered with discounts on regular products and brands or they buy only low cost products. More is the discount
the more they tend towards buying. These customers are mostly related to small industries or the industries that
focus on low or marginal investments on products. Focus on these types of customers is also important as they
also promote distinguished part of profit into business.
Impulsive Customers- These customers are difficult to convince as they want to do the business in urge or
caprice. They don‘t have any specific item into their product list but urge to buy what they find good and
productive at that point of time. Handling these customers is a challenge as they are not particularly looking for a
product and want the supplier to display all the useful products they have in their tally in front of them so that
they can buy what they like from that display. If impulsive customers are treated accordingly then there is high
probability that these customers could be a responsible for high percentage of selling.
Need Based Customers- These customers are product specific and only tend to buy items only to which they
are habitual or have a specific need for them. These are frequent customers but do not become a part of buying
most of the times so it is difficult to satisfy them. These customers should be handled positively by showing
them ways and reasons to switch to other similar products and brands and initiating them to buy these. These
customers could possibly be lost if not tackled efficiently with positive interaction.
Wandering Customers- These are the least profitable customers as sometimes they themselves are not sure
what to buy. These customers are normally new in industry and most of
the times visit suppliers only for confirming their needs on products. They investigate features of most prominent
products in the market but do not buy any of those or show least interest in buying. To grab such customers they
should be properly informed about the various positive features of the products so that they develop a sense of
interest.
Importance of customer care

Satisfied Shareholders
Good customer care leads to satisfaction of consumers and shareholders. Satisfactory response from consumers
means increased sales, which ultimately leads to increased satisfaction of shareholders. They tend to invest more
in your organization, which can dramatically improve the return on investment of your business.
Increased Business Growth

Quality service can boost your business growth. Quality services can help you expand your client base but great
customer service is the key to retain your clients.
Successful Business Strategies
Encouraging consumers for feedback and comments is an integral part of quality customer service. Following
consumers‘ feedback for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses is probably the best way to understand the
expectations of consumers and adopt successful business strategies.
Reduced Risk of Business Failures
Understanding the expectations and mindset of consumers can considerably reduce the risk of business failures
and losses.
Consumer Satisfaction
If your customers are happy, your investors and business partners will be happy as well, and this ultimately leads
to higher profits. With a strong client base you can win the trust of investors and make the most of every viable
business opportunity.
Reduced Employee Turnover

With increased sales and higher profits due to effective customer service, you can offer employees good
salary packages and additional bonuses, thus reducing employee turnover.
Stronger customer loyalty

Reduced marketing costs
Customer care skills
Listening skills
Listen intently. This shows that you care and want to offer the right solution.
Communication skills
Communicate effectively. Know when to listen, when to speak and how to speak.
Be calm and have patience

Try to manage your emotions and stay calm. This will help deal with disgruntled and confused customers.
When you stay calm your customer will feel respected.
Honesty
Being honest and transparent with your customers proves that you truly care about their happiness and
satisfaction even when the message you are sharing is not positive.
Body language
Maintaining a good body language is important when talking to a client. Smiling frequently and expressing
happiness and laughter in your conversation helps to improve the customer‘s experience.
Empathy
It is important not only to understand what a customer says, but how a customer feels. An important skill is being
able to recognize and understand a person‘s emotional state. If you struggle to convey empathy, think about being
in the customer‘s position. How would you feel if you were in her position? How would you like to be treated by
an employee? These questions will help you to identify with and better assist your customers.
Taking responsibility
A big part of working in customer service is being able to say, ―I‘m sorry,‖ whether it‘s for a late shipment or the
poor quality of a product. You have to be able to sincerely apologize to a customer on behalf of your company,
even when the problem was not your fault.
Human relation skills
Get to know other workers/ colleagues.

Interact with your coworkers. Join employee recreational and social activities. Listen to the things your
coworkers share about their personal lives and interests.
Don‘t try to change everything.

Know and understand the organization before you think about changing something. Listen to others. Talk to
coworkers about your ideas and get some feedback before you suggest changes.
Be honest.
One of the most important things you own is a good reputation. Honesty with your coworkers will build up
your reputation. It‘s one of the best ways to gain and keep respect.
Avoid gossip.
Don‘t listen to other people gossiping about coworkers. Most importantly, never gossip about others. When
you gossip, people wonder what you say about them and often avoid you.
Be positive and supportive.

Listen to the ideas of other people. When someone makes a mistake, don‘t criticize. It‘s irritating to have someone
else point out a mistake. When you realize you‘ve made a mistake, admit it and try to do better next time.
Show appreciation.
Be sure you thank a coworker who does something to make your job easier. Let coworkers know you appreciate
their contributions to the team. People like to be recognized and praised.
Return favors.
A coworker might help you out by exchanging a day off with you. Return that favor. A sure way to make people
dislike you is to only take and never give.
Live in the present.

Avoid talking about the way things used to be. People don‘t want to hear about how great your old job was or
how great former coworkers were.
Ask for help and advice when you need it.
People like to feel needed. Your coworkers can be a great resource. When you aren‘t sure what to do, they can
give you advice and assistance.
Avoid battles.
Let coworkers in conflict work out their own differences. Don‘t take sides in their arguments. This is a sure
way to develop problems with coworkers. When you take sides, other people usually resent your interference.
Often both sides become unhappy with you.
Interpersonal skills
Verbal communication
Effective verbal communication begins with clarity. This often requires nothing more than slowing down and
speaking more thoughtfully. Many people feel rushed to respond to questions and conversations immediately, but
it is better to pause for a moment in consideration, especially if the question merits it.
Non-verbal communication
Your body language is constantly speaking. Everything you do or don‘t do says something about you and how you
are feeling. Your facial expressions (especially eye contact), your posture, your voice, your gestures with your
extremities and even the way you position yourself physically in a room or amongst colleagues is constantly
revealing your true attitude, for better or for worse.
Listening skills
This is the ability to hear attentively and process information correctly. Effective listening enables one to
interpret a message and respond appropriately.
Manners
Good manners tend to make many other interpersonal skills come naturally. With business becoming increasingly
more global, even for small businesses, manners are more important than ever. A basic understanding of etiquette
translates to other cultures and their expectations.
Negotiation
This term means having the ability to discuss and reach an agreement in a professional manner.
Problem solving
This is a very important skill for business people to have as constant problems are a common result within
organizations. The key aspects of successful problem solving are being able to identify exactly what the problem
is, dissecting the problem so that it is fully understood, examining all options pertaining to solutions, setting up a
system of strategies and objectives to solve the problem, and finally putting this plan into effect and monitoring
its progress.
Responsibility and accountability

Responsibility and accountability are two reliable indicators of maturity. Saying you are going to do something
and then actually doing it is a sign of responsibility. This builds trust between yourself and those they rely on you
and it encourages others to seek your counsel and assistance.
LISTENING SKILLS
You probably spend more time using your listening skills than any other kind of skill. Like other skills,
listening takes practice.
What does it mean to really listen?
Real listening is an active process that has three basic steps.
Hearing. Hearing just means listening enough to catch what the speaker is saying. For example, say you were
listening to a report on zebras, and the speaker mentioned that no two are alike. If you can repeat the fact,
then you have heard what has been said.
Understanding. The next part of listening happens when you take what you have heard and understand it in
your own way. Let's go back to that report on zebras. When you hear that no two are alike, think about
what that might mean. You might think, "Maybe this means that the pattern of stripes is different for each
zebra."
Judging. After you are sure you understand what the speaker has said, think about whether it makes sense.
Do you believe what you have heard? You might think, "How could the stripes to be different for every
zebra? But then again, the fingerprints are different for every person. I think this seems believable."
Tips for being a good listener

Give your full attention on the person who is speaking. Don't look out the window or at what else is going
on in the room.
Make sure your mind is focused, too. It can be easy to let your mind wander if you think you know what the
person is going to say next, but you might be wrong! If you feel your mind wandering, change the position
of your body and try to concentrate on the speaker's words.
Let the speaker finish before you begin to talk. Speakers appreciate having the chance to say everything they
would like to say without being interrupted. When you interrupt, it looks like you aren't listening, even if
you really are.
Let yourself finish listening before you begin to speak! You can't really listen if you are busy thinking about
what you want say next.
Listen for main ideas. The main ideas are the most important points the speaker wants to get across. They
may be mentioned at the start or end of a talk, and repeated a number of times. Pay special attention to
statements that begin with phrases such as "My point is..." or "The thing to remember is..."
Ask questions. If you are not sure you understand what the speaker has said, just ask. It is a good idea to
repeat in your own words what the speaker said so that you can be sure your understanding is correct. For
example, you might say, "When you said that no two zebras are alike, did you mean that the stripes are
different on each one?"
Give feedback. Sit up straight and look directly at the speaker. Now and then, nod to show that you
understand. At appropriate points you may also smile, frown, laugh, or be silent. These are all ways to let
the speaker know that you are really listening. Remember, you listen with your face as well as your ears!
Thinking fast
Remember: time is on your side! Thoughts move about four times as fast as speech. With practice, while you
are listening you will also be able to think about what you are hearing, really understand it, and give
feedback to the speaker.
All the best in your studies

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BURETI TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

Communication Terms and Concepts

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

The Purposes of Communication

Communicating to establish goodwill

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

We communicate to establish and maintain relationships with others

Principles/ essentials of effective communication

Information Communication Technology (ICT)

There are 6 components to an ICT system

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

Data: raw facts and figures.

Factors to consider when choosing a communication channel

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

E-mail is a vital communication channel in geographically dispersed companies.

Letters, memos, e-mail, notices, reports e.t.c (Written communication)

5. TV and Radio (Adv & disadv- assignment)

Advantages of written communication (letters, memos, e-mail, notices, reports e.t.c.)

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

Disadvantages of written communication (letters, memos, e-mail, notices, reports e.t.c.)

Information-- Sender (Encodes) ---Channel/ medium/ message----------- receiver (Decodes)

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

Barriers to effective communication

Strategies for overcoming barriers to effective communication

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

Ethical issues in communication

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

Interpersonal communication: Interpersonal communication is an exchange of information between two

Uses of interpersonal communication

Uses of intrapersonal communication

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION Different Forms of

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

Disadvantages of Oral Communication

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

Body Language or Body Movements (Kinesics)

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

Eye Contact (occulesics)

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

Disadvantages of non-verbal communication

Advantages of Written Communication

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

Disadvantages of Written Communication

Advantages of visual communication

Better understanding and retention

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

Captivates and retains audience attention

Disadvantages of visual communication

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE, PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY Etiquette

Need/ importance for Etiquette

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

How to be diplomatic in communication.

Advantages of being diplomatic

BTTI SYNTHESISED COMMUNICATION SKILLS NOTES 2018

The Comma (,)