ECP103 MIDTERM REVIEWER

WEEK 7: CURRENT MIRRORS AND CURRENT A current mirror is a circuit that copies the current of
SOURCE one transistor using another. The basic operation
involves a "master" transistor and a "slave"
A current source is a circuit element that provides a
transistor. The collector current of the master
constant current.
transistor is mirrored onto the collector current of
TYPES OF CURRENT SOURCES the slave transistor.

1. An ideal current source is an abstract An ideal current mirror would have a perfect
electrical component used in circuit theory replication of current, regardless of temperature or
and analysis to represent a source that manufacturing variations.
provides a constant and unchanging current
TYPES OF CURRENT MIRRORS
regardless of the voltage or load conditions.
1. A simple current mirror is one of the most
While an ideal current source is a theoretical
basic and commonly used types of current
concept, it is often approximated and realized in mirrors in electronics.
practical electronics by using various circuit
configurations. These include: A simple current mirror consists of
two bipolar transistors or two
• Transistor Current Sources: Bipolar junction MOSFETs. One of these transistors
transistors (BJTs) and field-effect transistors is referred to as the "master"
(FETs) can be used in biasing transistor (Q1), and the other as the
configurations to approximate ideal current "slave" transistor (Q2). The primary
sources. function of the simple current mirror
• Operational Amplifier-Based Current is to copy the collector (or drain)
Sources: Precision current sources can be current of the master transistor (Q1)
designed using operational amplifiers and into the collector (or drain) current of
passive components to provide highly stable the slave transistor (Q2).
current outputs.
2. The Wilson current mirror, named after its
2. A practical current source is an electronic inventor R. C. Wilson, is an advanced type
circuit element that provides a relatively of current mirror that improves upon the
constant and stable output current under limitations of the basic simple current mirror.
various operating conditions, despite real-
world limitations and variations. - Master Transistor (Q1): The master
3. A MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor transistor, Q1, is the transistor whose
Field-Effect Transistor) current source is a collector current is to be copied or
type of practical current source mirrored.
implemented using MOSFETs as the active - Auxiliary Transistor (Q2): The auxiliary
components. transistor, Q2, is used to improve the
4. A bipolar transistor current source, often accuracy and performance of the current
referred to as a BJT (Bipolar Junction mirror.
Transistor) current source, is a practical - Output Transistor (Q3): The output
circuit element used to generate a stable transistor, Q3, replicates the collector
and constant current output. current of the master transistor.

Current mirrors play a crucial role in biasing and 3. A cascode current mirror is a specialized
signal processing. They create a constant current configuration of a current mirror that
source, which is essential in many electronic combines the principles of the cascode
circuits. Current mirrors are also used in differential amplifier with the basic current mirror
amplifiers and other applications. design.
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A cascode current mirror typically Common-Mode Signal: The part of the input
consists of three transistors: a signal that appears on both the inverting and non-
cascode transistor (Q1), a load inverting inputs. It is usually noise or interference.
transistor (Q2), and an output
transistor (Q3). The cascode Differential Signal: The part of the input signal that
transistor (Q1) is stacked on top of appears only on the non-inverting input.
the load transistor (Q2), and
together they form the cascode The voltage gain (AD) of a differential amplifier is
stage, which effectively decouples defined as the change in output voltage with
the mirrored current from variations respect to the change in the difference between the
in output voltage. two input voltages.
4. The Widlar current mirror is a type of current
AD = ΔVout / ΔVdifferential
mirror configuration designed by the
renowned analog circuit designer Bob
Widlar. A number of input signal combinations are possible:
The Widlar current mirror typically If an input signal is applied to either input with the
consists of two bipolar transistors other input connected to the ground, the operation
(NPN transistors in most cases) and is referred to as “single-ended.”
a current-setting resistor.
If two opposite-polarity input signals are applied,
WEEK 8: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS the operation is referred to as “double-ended.”
A differential amplifier is an electronic amplifier If the same input is applied to both inputs, the
that amplifies the difference between two inputs operation is called “common-mode.”
signals while rejecting any common-mode
In single-ended operation, a single input signal is
signals.
applied. However, due to the common emitter
connection, the input signal operates both
V0 = A (V+ - V-)
transistors, resulting in output from both collectors.
NOTE: The output cannot be larger than the supply In double-ended operation, two input signals are
voltages, which are not shown. It will limit or “clip” if applied, the difference of the inputs resulting in
we attempt to go too far. We call the limits of the outputs from both collectors due to the difference of
output the “rails.” the signals applied to both inputs.
In common-mode operation, the common input
signal results in opposite signals at each collector,
these signals cancel, so the resulting output signal
is zero. As a practical matter, the opposite signals
do not completely cancel, and a small signal
results.

Figure 10.6 shows the same operation with a single The main feature of the differential amplifier is the
output measured between output terminals (not very large gain when opposite signals are applied
with respect to ground). This difference output to the inputs as compared to the very small gain
signal is Vo1 - Vo2. The difference output is also resulting from common inputs. The ratio of this
called a floating signal since neither output difference gain to the common gain is called
terminal is the ground (reference) terminal. The common-mode rejection.
difference output is twice as large as either Vo1 or
Vo2 because they are of opposite polarity and
subtracting them results in twice their amplitude.
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WEEK 9: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS Non-Inverting Amplifier: Uses the non-inverting

input for amplification with positive gain.
Op-amps are typically integrated circuit (IC)
devices that can amplify voltage signals, perform Summing Amplifier: Adds multiple input voltages.
mathematical operations, and more.
Differential Amplifier: Computes the difference
The operational amplifier or op-amp is a circuit of between two input signals.
components integrated into one chip.
Inverting Amplifier:
Op-Amp Input Modes
Single-Ended Input Mode - The input signal is
connected to ONE input and the other input is
grounded.
Common Mode Input - Two signals of the same Non-Inverting Amplifier:
phase, frequency, and amplitude are applied to the
inputs, resulting in no output (signals cancel). But,
in practical, a small output signal will result. This is
called common-mode rejection. This type of
mode is used for removal of unwanted noise
signals.
Summing Amplifier:
Types of Op-Amps
General-Purpose Op-Amps: These are versatile
op-amps used in various applications.
Instrumentation Amplifiers: Specialized op-amps
used for precise signal amplification in Scaling Summing Amplifier:
measurement and sensor applications.
Differential Amplifiers: Op-amps designed to
amplify the difference between two input signals.
Current Feedback Op-Amps: Op-amps that use
current rather than voltage for feedback. Differential Amplifier:

Practical Applications
Signal Processing: In audio amplification, filtering,
and signal conditioning.
Instrumentation: Measuring instruments, sensors,
and data acquisition systems.
Operational Amplifier Specifications
Control Systems: Used in feedback loops for
control and automation. Voltage Gain (Av): Ratio of output voltage to the
input voltage.
Oscillators and waveform generation.
Input Impedance: The resistance seen by the
Op-Amp Configurations
signal source.
Inverting Amplifier: Utilizes the inverting input for
Output Impedance: The resistance seen by the
signal amplification.
load.
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Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): Ability can be configured to exhibit both positive and
to reject common-mode signals. negative feedback characteristics.
Bandwidth: The range of frequencies the op-amp Control Systems: Feedback systems are crucial in
can handle. control theory, enabling the control of dynamic
systems.
Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBP): The product of
the gain and bandwidth. Feedback Topologies - refer to the different
configurations or arrangements of feedback within
Slew Rate: Maximum rate of change of the output a system.
voltage.
Designing and optimizing feedback circuits is a
Input Offset Voltage and Current: Small voltage
multi-step process involving careful analysis,
and current differences between the inputs.
component selection, and fine-tuning to achieve the
desired performance characteristics.
A feedback amplifier is an electronic amplifier
circuit in which a portion of the output signal is fed
back to the input in a controlled manner.
Feedback: Is the process where by a portion of the
output is returned to the input to form a part of the
system excitation.
The General Feedback Equation

WEEK 10-11: FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

A feedback system involves the process of
feeding a part of the output back to the input. This
feedback loop provides information that allows the
system to regulate its behavior.
Feedback Connections
Negative Feedback System: Negative feedback is
when the system’s output is fed back to the input in
such a way that it opposes the input variation,
maintaining stability and reducing the overall gain.
It is commonly used to regulate and stabilize
systems.
Positive Feedback: In contrast, positive feedback
amplifies the input. It reinforces the deviation from
an equilibrium condition, leading to amplification
and potentially oscillatory behavior.
Practical Feedback Circuits
Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps): Op-amps are
an essential component in feedback circuits. They
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Gain Stability (Sensitivity and Desensitivity) with

Feedback: