Department of Civil Engineering , NICE

Applied Physics & Electromechanical

Fundamentals (PHY-113) Lab
Section : C

Lab Report : 02

Submitted By :
Sr. Name Reg. Number
no
1 Abdul Rehman 513824
2 Ahsan-Ullah Latif 520967
3 Abdullah Zia 528349
4 Hassam-Ul-Hassan 524991
5 Uzair Ahmad 513569
6 Usman Baig 531888
7 Abdul Mohaimen 501482
 Experiment # 3 : Ohm’s Law
Abstract:
• The following experiments were performed to analysis the behavior of the three variables in
Ohm’s Law i.e. current, voltage and resistance.
• Values of current, voltage and resistance are measured practically by using DMM and
Theoretically by using Ohm’s law.
• The error is also calculated in the experimental value.

Equipment :
1. AC/DC Electronics Lab Board: Wire Leads
2. D-cell Battery
3. Multimeter
4. Graph Paper
5. Resistors
6. Color chart
7. Connecting wires.

Theory :
The relationship between current, voltage, and relationship was discovered by German scientist
Georg Simon Ohm. Ohm’s law helps us in determining either voltage, current or impedance or
resistance of a linear electric circuit when the other two quantities are known to us. It also
makes power calculation simpler.
V=IR

Statement:
"The electric current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference applied across its ends, provided that the Temperature remains constant.”
Mathematically
V∝I
V=IR
where R is proportionality constant
V= Voltage
I = Current

Limitations of ohm’s LAW

• Law Ohm’s law is not applicable to unilateral networks. Unilateral networks allow the
current to flow in one direction. Such types of network consists elements like a diode,
transistor, etc.
 • Ohm’s law is also not applicable to non – linear elements. Non-linear elements are those
which do not have current exactly proportional to the applied voltage that means the
resistance value of those elements changes for different values of voltage and current.
Examples of non – linear elements are the thyristor
Procedure
1. Choose one of the resistors that you have been given. Using the chart on the next page, decode
the resistance value and record that value in the first column of Table 3.1.
2. MEASURING CURRENT: Construct the circuit shown in Figure 3.1a by pressing the leads
of the resistor into two of the springs in the Experimental Section on the Circuits Experiment
Board.
3. Set the Multimeter to the 200-mA range, noting any special connections needed for
measuring current. Connect the circuit and read the current that is flowing through the
resistor. Record this value in the second column of Table 3.1.
4. Remove the resistor and choose another. Record its resistance value in Table 3.1 then
measure and record the current as in steps 2 and 3. Continue this process until you have
completed all of the resistors you have been given. As you have more than one resistor with
the same value, keep them in order as you will use them again in the next steps.
5. MEASURING VOLTAGE: Disconnect the Multimeter and connect a wire from the
positive lead (spring) of the battery directly to the first resistor you used as shown in

Figure 3.1b. Change the Multimeter to the 2 V DC scale and connect the leads as shown also
in Figure 3.1b. Measure the voltage across the resistor and record it in Table 3.1.
6. Remove the resistor and choose the next one you used. Record its voltage in Table 3.1 as in
step 5. Continue this process until you have completed all of the resistors.
Reference :

Data Processing :
1. Construct a graph of Current (ver�cal axis) vs Resistance.

2. For each of your sets of data, calculate the ra�o of Voltage/Resistance. Compare the values you
calculate with the measured values of the current.

Table 3.1

Current (I) vs Resistance (R)

Resistance (R)

3.5
3
2.5
Current (I)

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Resistance(R)
Discussions :
Questions :
1. From your graph, what is the mathematical relationship between Current and Resistance?
Answer:
As we can see, there is an inverse relation between Current and Resistance. As the value of the
resistance increases, the current becomes smaller and smaller. We can consider the following
relation from the graph: 𝐼𝐼 ∞1𝑅𝑅
2. Ohm’s Law states that current is given by the ratio of voltage/resistance. Does your data
concur with this?
Answer:
Yes, our data concurs with this. We can see from the table given above that the measured value
is approximately equal to the calculated current (I = V/R).
Current (A) Voltage/Resistance
0.34 mA 0.36 mA
0.121 mA 1.21 mA
1.17 mA 1.16 mA
1.19 mA 1.23 mA
1.96 mA 1.96 mA

3. What were possible sources of experimental error in this lab? Would you expect each to
make your results larger or to make them smaller?
Answer :
The wire connections were inadequate due to the small size of the equipment. Utilizing larger
equipment with appropriate crocodile clips would have improved the connections and reduced
experimental error. Additionally, variations in my results stem from the inherent resistance of
the wires used, as well as the resistance of the multimeter, which we have not accounted for.
Furthermore, the battery has been used in several prior experiments, leading to diminished
energy levels and contributing to fluctuating, lower readings with significant experimental
error.
 Experiment : 04 Resistance in a Circuit
Abstract :
The following experiments were performed to analysis the behaviour of the three resistors in
series, parallel and series parallel combination. Values of current, voltage and resistance are
measured practically by using DMM and Theoretically by using Ohm’s law. The error is also
calculated in the experimental value.
THEORY:
The relationship between current, voltage, and relationship was discovered by German scientist
Georg Simon Ohm. Ohm’s law helps us in determining either voltage, current or impedance or
resistance of a linear electric circuit when the other two quantities are known to us. It also
makes power calculation simpler.
RESISTOR:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance
as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal
levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other
uses

RESISTANCE:
Resistance is the property of an electrical component which allows it to restrict the flow of current.

Equipment Needed:
- AC/DC Electronics Lab Board: Wire Leads
- Multimeter

Procedure
• Choose three resistors of the same value. Enter those sets of colours in Table below. We
will refer to one as 1, another as 2 and the third as 3.
• Determine the coded value of your resistors. Enter the value in the column labelled
“Coded Resistance” in Table. Enter the Tolerance value as indicated by the colour of
the fourth band under “Tolerance.”
• Use the Multimeter to measure the resistance of each of your three resistors. Enter these
values in Table .
• Determine the percentage experimental error of each resistance value and enter it in the
appropriate column.
Experimental Error = [(|Measured - Coded|) / Coded ] x 100%.
Colours Coded Measured % Tolerance
1 2nd 3rd 4th
st
Resistance Resistance Error
1. 0.659 MΩ
2. 0.638 MΩ
3. 0.652 MΩ
 • Now connect the three resistors into the SERIES CIRCUIT, figure 4.1, using the spring clips on
the Circuits Experiment Board to hold the leads of the resistors together without bending
them. Measure the resistances of the combina�ons as indicated on the diagram by connec�ng
the leads of the Mul�meter between the points at the ends of the arrows.

Series :

R12 : 1.131 mΩ
R23 : 1.291 mΩ
R123 : 1.948 mΩ
• Construct a PARALLEL CIRCUIT, first using combinations of two of the resistors, and
then using all three. Measure and record your values for these circuits.

Parallel
Connect the COMBINATION CIRCUIT below and measure the various combinations of
resistance

R12 : 217.1 kΩ
R23 : 217.1 kΩ
R123 : 217.1 kΩ

Combination :

R12 : 695000 Ω
R23 : 323600 Ω
R123 : 982000 Ω

• Choose three resistors having different values. Repeat steps 1 through 7 as above,
recording your data in the spaces on the next page. Note we have called these resistors
A, B and C.

Colours Coded Measured % Tolerance

1 2nd 3rd 4th
st
Resistance Resistance Error
1. Brown Green Red Gold 1500 1515 1% 5%
2. Orange Orange Red Gold 3300 3310 0.30% 5%
3. Brown Green Orange Gold 15000 14930 0.47% 5%

Experimental Error = [(|Measured - Coded|) / Coded ] x 100%.

Series :

R12 : 4380 Ω
R23 : 18300 Ω
R123 : 19755 Ω

Parallel
• Connect the COMBINATION CIRCUIT below and measure the various combinations
of resistance

R12 : 1,039 Ω
R23 : 2710 Ω
R123 : 970 Ω
Combination :

R12 : 1515 Ω
R23 : 2710 Ω
R123 : 4230 Ω

Questions
1. How does the % error compare to the coded tolerance for your resistors?
Answer: Our percentage error is within the limits mentioned by the coded tolerance.
2. What is the apparent rule for combining unequal resistances in series circuits? In parallel
circuits? Cite evidence from your data to support your conclusions.
Answer:
Unequal resistances, just like equal ones are added and overall resistances will always be
greater than individual resistance in series, while reciprocals of resistances are added in
parallel as per formula, which give reciprocal of overall resistance. Hence overall resistance
is lesser than the lowest individual resistance.
(Data evidence at the end).
3. What is the apparent rule for the total resistance when resistors are added up in series?
In parallel? Cite evidence from your data to support your conclusions.
Answer: In case of series circuits, simply add all the resistances regardless of equal or
unequal resistances. 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅=𝑅𝑅1+𝑅𝑅2+.....+𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Here Rt is total resistance in series and Rn is the resistances upto n number of resistors.
In parallel circuits, used the formula: 1𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅=(1𝑅𝑅1)+(1𝑅𝑅2)+.....+(1𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅)
Here Rt is total resistance and Rn is the resistances upto n number of resistors.
(Data evidence at the end).
Data Evidence :
Measures Resistance Sum of resistance in series Sum of resistance in parallel
R1=1515 R12=4380 R12=1039
R2=3310 R23=18300 R23=2710
R3=14930 R123=19755 R123=970

Experiment : 05 Voltage in Circuit

Equipment Needed:
• AC/DC Electronics Lab Board: Wire Leads
• D-cell Battery
• Multimeter

Abstract :
The purpose of this lab will be to continue experimenting with the variables that contribute to
the operation of an electrical circuit. You should have completed Experiment 4 before working
on this lab.

Procedure :
1. Connect the three resistors that you used in Experiment 4 into the series circuit shown below,
using the springs to hold the leads of the resistors together without bending them. Connect two
wires to the D-cell, carefully noting which wire is connected to the negative and which is
connected to the positive.
2. Now use the voltage function on the Multimeter to measure the voltages across the individual
resistors and then across the combinations of resistors. Be careful to observe the polarity of the
leads (red is +, black is -). Record your readings below.
Series :
 R1 = 0.659 mΩ ; V1 = 0.484 𝐕𝐕
R2 = 0.653 mΩ ; V2 = 0.480 𝐕𝐕
R3 = 0.638 mΩ ; V3 = 0.470 𝐕𝐕
R12 = 1.131 mΩ ; V12 = 0.965 𝐕𝐕
R23 = 1.291 mΩ ; V23 = 0.950 𝐕𝐕
R123=1.948 mΩ ; V123=1.496 𝐕𝐕

3. Now connect the parallel circuit below, using all three resistors. Measure the voltage
across each of the resistors and the combination, taking care with the polarity as before.
Parallel :

R1 = 217.1 kΩ ; V1 = 1.496 𝐕𝐕
R2 = 217.1 kΩ ; V2 = 1.496 𝐕𝐕
R3 = 217.1 kΩ ; V3 = 1.496 𝐕𝐕
R123=2.948 kΩ ; V123=1.496 𝐕𝐕
• Now connect the circuit below and measure the voltages. You can use the resistance
readings you took in Experiment 4 for this step.
Combination :

R1 = 217.1 kΩ ; V1 = 1.496 𝐕𝐕
R23 = 217.1 kΩ ; V2 = 1.496 𝐕𝐕
R123=2.948 kΩ ; V123=1.496 𝐕𝐕
• Use the three unequal resistors that you used in Experiment 4 to construct the circuits shown
below. Make the same voltage measurements that you were asked to make before in steps 1
to 4. Use the same resistors for A, B and C that you used in Experiment 4

Series :

RA = 1515 VA = 0.09
RB = 3310 VB = 0.20
RC = 14930 VC = 0.89
RAB = 4820 VAB = 1.084
RBC = 18300 VBC = 0.286
RABC = 19755 VABC =1.174
Parallel :

RA = 1515 VA = 1.74
RB = 3310 VB = 1.734
RC = 14930 VC = 1.71
RABC = 970 VABC = 1.17

Combination :

R1 = 1515 V1 = 0.419
R23 = 2710 V23 = 0.754
R123 = 4230 V123 = 1.175

Ques�ons
1. On the basis of the data you recorded on the table with Figure 5.1, what is the patern for how
voltage gets distributed in a series circuit with equal resistances?

Answer: Voltages is divided equally in series resistors with equal resistances as each resistor will have
the same amount of voltage while overall current remains constant.
2. U�lizing the data from Figure 5.2, what is the patern for how voltage distributes itself in a parallel
circuit for unequal resistances?

Answer: As in a parallel circuit, the current traveling has various paths to choose between with varying
resistances, it divided itself as per the resistance. The path which poses the least resistance is the
medium for the most current henceforth the voltage across parallel resistors is always constant as they
must follow V=IR principle.

3. Do the voltages in your combina�on circuits (see Figures 5.3) follow the same rules as they did in
your circuits which were purely series or parallel? If not, state the rules you see in opera�on.
Answer: No, they don't follow the exact same rules because now the resistors are added in a different
combina�on of both series and parallel. Hence the two parallel resistors follow the rules for parallel
circuits and then the resistance values of that part shall follow rules of the series circuit as another
resistor is now added in series. Thereby, a mixture of rules is followed but in basic essence the rules
won't vary.
 Experiment : 06 Currents in a Circuit
Abstract :
The purpose of this lab will be to continue experimenting with the variables that contribute to
the operation of electrical circuits.

Equipment Needed:
• AC/DC Electronics Lab Board: Wire Leads
• D-cell Battery
• Multimeter

Procedure
1. Connect the same three resistors that you used in Experiments 3 and 4 into the series circuit
shown below, using the springs to hold the leads of the resistors together without bending them.
Connect two wires to the D-cell, and carefully note which lead is negative and which is positive.
Series
2. Now change the leads in your DMM so that they can be used to measure current. You should
be using the scale which goes to a maximum of 200 mA. Be careful to observe the polarity of
the leads (red is +, black is -). In order to measure current, the circuit must be interrupted, and
the current allowed to flow through the meter. Disconnect the lead wire from the positive
terminal of the battery and connect it to the red (+) lead of the meter. Connect the black (-) lead
to R1, where the wire originally was connected. Record your reading in the table as Io. See
Figure 6.3.
3. Now move the DMM to the positions indicated in Figure 6.3, each time interrupting the
circuit, and carefully measuring the current in each one. Complete the table on the top of the
back page.

R1 = 0.695 MΩ ; I0 =0.7x10-6 𝑨𝑨 ; V1 =0.484 𝐕𝐕

R2 = 0.653 MΩ ; I1 =0.7x10-6𝑨𝑨 ; V2 =0.480 𝐕𝐕

R3 =0.638 MΩ ; I2 =0.7x10-6𝑨𝑨 ; V3 =0.470 𝐕𝐕

 R12 = 1.131 Ω ; I3 =0.7x10-6𝑨𝑨 ;V12 =0.965 𝐕𝐕

R23 =1.291 Ω ; V23 =0.950 𝐕𝐕

R123= 1.948Ω ; V123=1.496 𝐕𝐕

Parallel :
4. Connect the parallel circuit below, using all three resistors. Review the instructions for
connecting the DMM as an ammeter in step 2. Connect it first between the positive terminal of
the battery and the parallel circuit junction to measure I0. Then interrupt the various branches
of the parallel circuit and measure the individual branch currents. Record your measurements
in the table below.

R1 = 0.659 MΩ I0 =6.8x10-3𝑨𝑨 ;V1 = 1.496 𝐕𝐕

R2 = 0.653 MΩ I1 =2.2x10-3𝑨𝑨 ;V2 = 1.496 𝐕𝐕
R3 = 0.638 MΩ I2 = 2.2x10-3𝑨𝑨 ;V3 = 1.496 𝐕𝐕
R123 = 217.1 KΩ I3 = 2.2x10-3𝑨𝑨 ;V123 = 1.496 𝐕𝐕
I4 = 6.8x10-3𝑨𝑨0.
Questions
1. On the basis of your first set of data, what is the pattern for how current behaves in a series
circuit? At this point you should be able to summarize the behaviour of all three quantities -
resistance, voltage and current - in series circuits.

Answer:
In a series circuit, current behaves as a constant. Its value won't change throughout the circuit,
while voltage will vary across each resistor dependent upon the value of resistance of the
resistor. Resistances of the resistor in series is always added and the total resistance is used to
find the total current as in essence the formula V=IR is used.
2. On the basis of your second set of data, are there any patterns to the way that currents behave
in a parallel circuit? At this time you should be able to write the general characteristics of
currents, voltages and resistances in parallel circuits.
Answer:
In a parallel circuit, voltage across each resistor will remain constant and is always equal the
voltage of the battery. Resistance of resistors in parallel tend to decrease. Following the formula
mentioned above, overall resistance of resistors will always be less than that of the least
resistance resistor. As V=IR is also followed here and at each junction, current has the option
to choose paths, current divides itself in a way where most current passes through the path with
least overall resistance making sure the voltage obtained is the same. And at the last junction,
the current merges to one just before it reaches the battery.