3 R D

E D I T I O N

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
PATRICIA L . SMITH
TILLMAN J. RAGAN
The University of Oklahoma

BUTUH LENGKAP HUB

[email protected]

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:

Smith, Patricia L. (Patricia Lucille)
Instructional design / Patricia L. Smith, Tillman J. Ragan.—3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-471-39353-3 (pbk.)
1. Instructional systems—Design. I. Ragan, Tillman J. II. Title.

LB1028.38.S65 2005
371.3—dc22
2004048818

ISBN 0-471-39353-3

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To our daughters, Bessie and Patty,
from whom we have learned
more than we have taught
 A B O U T T H E A U T H O R S

Patricia L. Smith is Professor Emeritus in the Instruc- Tillman J. Ragan is Professor Emeritus in the Instruc-
tional Psychology and Technology program at the tional Psychology and Technology program at the
University of Oklahoma. She received her Ph.D. in University of Oklahoma. He received his Ph.D. in In-
Instructional Systems from Florida State University in structional Technology from Syracuse University in
1982. Dr. Smith is author of two books and numerous 1970. Dr. Ragan is author of five books and numerous ar-
journal articles, technical reports, and chapters on ticles, technical reports, and chapters on instructional
computer-based instruction and instructional design. technology, and he has been a columnist for Educational
She has served as president of the Research and Theory Technology magazine. He has served on many committees
Division and as a member of the board of directors of and has been president of the Research and Theory
that division as well as the Division of Instructional Division and of the Division of Instructional
Development (now “Design and Development”) of the Development (now “Design and Development”) of the
Association for Educational Communications and Tech- Association for Educational Communications and Tech-
nology. She has also served as co-chair of the Professors nology, vice-president of the International Visual
of Instructional Design and Technology conference and Literacy Association, and co-chair of the Professors of
as president of the Instructional Technology Special Instructional Design Technology conference. His area
Interest Group of the American Educational Research of interest is instructional technology, with particular
Association. Her primary areas of interest are instruc- interest in learner characteristics, visual literacy, and
tional design, particularly the design of organizational applications of computer technology to the facilitation
strategies, design of print-based instruction, instruc- of learning.
tional feedback, and program evaluation.

v
 P R E F A C E

This book is intended to be of assistance to anyone who ment), learners, and learning tasks. The section also
is interested in facilitating learning. contains the chapter on assessment of learning.
We hope that this text is helpful to people who are The third section, Instructional Strategies, is concerned
both interested in learning what has become known as primarily with micro-level strategies to facilitate learn-
“mainstream” instructional design, as well as alterna- ing. A separate chapter is provided for strategies leading
tives, innovations, and enrichments. In addition to a to the learning of eight distinct categories of learning:
number of truly valuable contributions from recent declarative knowledge, concepts, principles, proce-
work, we find that not all that is characterized as “new” dures, domain-specific problem solving, cognitive
in our field is in fact so new, and hope to provide a thor- strategies, attitude change and motivation, and psy-
ough-enough background to allow the reader to decide. chomotor skills. The approach to design of instructional
This text is predicated upon the belief that designers strategies is tied closely to cognitive learning theory and
need both skill in using procedures from accepted prac- related research, in which the cognitive requirements
tice as well as the ability to engage in problem solving of particular learning tasks, along with context and
from the standpoint of underlying concepts and princi- learner characteristics, are used to inform instructional
ples. Thus, although we offer extensive procedural as- strategy decisions. The final chapter in this section is de-
sistance, we emphasize the foundations and first voted to macro-level strategies and integration of learn-
principles upon which most of the models and proce- ing in larger units of study.
dures in our field are built. The text provides a founda- The fourth section, Implementation, Management, and
tion upon which users can adapt the design process to Evaluation, is comprised of a chapter on implementation
fit their unique contexts. of instruction, a chapter on management of instruction,
Despite the youth of the instructional design spe- and a chapter on formative and summative evaluation
cialty, it has developed a rich mainstream. In recent of instruction.
years, theory and practice involved in designing instruc- The fifth section, Conclusion, has one chapter which
tion have been enriched by ideas and approaches from supplies concluding comments and recommendations
many perspectives. However, too many people from such as “fast track” design approaches and the principle
both within the specialty and outside it have begun to of appropriate technology. The chapter also includes an
speak of the design of instruction as if it were uninflu- effort at pulling the material of the whole book together
enced by new ideas, or that it is an atheoretic, proce- into a summary. The chapter concludes with observa-
dure-bound practice with little or no research, or that it tions on future directions of interest to the field.
gets new ideas in the facilitation of learning only from
outside the specialty. Our experience with instructional
design is that it is a rapidly changing, theory-rich, chal-
Changes in the 3rd Edition
lenging and rewarding field of research and practice. Two chapters, Chapter 17, Implementation, and
Chapter 18, Management of Instruction, are new addi-
tions. We are pleased to be able to offer what we believe
Organization of the Text is a helpful treatment of these two areas of critical im-
The text is organized into five main sections. portance to most instructional designers. The new
The first section, Introduction, provides an introduc- chapter on implementation provides recommendations
tion to instructional design itself and a discussion of that can substantially increase the likelihood that in-
philosophical and theoretical foundations. structional design efforts will be successful. The chapter
The second section, Analysis and Assessment, includes contains practical implementation suggestions. These
chapters on analysis of context (including needs assess- suggestions draw heavily upon information about con-

vii
 SUBJECT INDEX 383

Social-functions, 293 Success indicators, 345 Task analysis, 328–29, 358 U

Social Judgment Theory, 262 Successive concepts, 174 problem solving, 222
Social Learning Theory, 262 Successful instructional design, Taxonomy, 79 Undergeneralize a concept, 178
Social studies, 293 360 Teachers Undergeneralization, 174
Sociocultural theory, 30 Suchman’s Inquiry Training, 233 as designers, 13 Underlining, 162
Sociology, 205, 365 Summaries, 137–38, 165, 180, preparing for instructional de- Understanding, 77, 79
SOCRATES, 362 197, 210, 282 sign, 367 Unencountered instances, 180
Socratic dialogue, 229 Summarize, 137 role, 337–38 Unexpected outcomes, 343
Solution, 220–22 Summary, 282 Teacher/trainer training, Utilization-related structure, 287
evaluation, 222 Summary for attitude learning, 307
implementation, 221 269 Teaching, 6 V
planning, 220–21 Summary for cognitive strategy Techniques for data gathering, 48
Spaced practice, 164, 275; see also learning, 250 Technology and curriculum, Validity, 108–9, 345
Psychomotor skills Summary for problem solving 295 Values, 66, 263, 368
Spatial learning strategies, 161 learning, 226 Technology’s assistance to inte- Valuing, 264
Spatial strategy, 224 Summative evaluation, 9, 43, grated curriculum design, Variable attribute, 173
Specification of mastery criteria, 327, 342–50; see also 295–96 Vehicle of an analogy, 134
119 Formative evaluation Technology, 7, 368 Verbal information, 152
Specific prior learning, 69 alternative approaches, 343 Temporal patterning of skills, 275 Verbatim recall, 164
Spider concept map, 162 alternative designs, 346–47 Terminal behavior, 97–98 Verbatim recitation, 157
Spiral curriculum, 288, 289 attitudes, 348 Terminal objectives, 95 Vertical articulation, 292
Stable differences, 59, 61 collection of data, 349 Testing, 104 Virtual learning communities, 365
Stable differences between learn- costs, 348–49 Tests, 9 Visual/haptic perceptual style, 62
ers, 61–64 data analysis, 349 Theorems, 205 Visual literacy, 68
implications for designers of, design, 345–46 Theoretical epitome, 289 Vygotsky, 30, 65
65 designer’s role, 344 Theories, instructional design,
Stable performer, 274 goals, 344–45 23–33 W
Stable similarities among learn- implementation, 348 Theory, 18, 23, 366–67
Weak methods, 246
ers, 60–61 indicators of success, 345 advances in, 366–67
Web Course Tools (WEbCT), 322
Stages learning outcomes, 347–48 Thinking strategies, 244–45
WebCT©, 322
of adoption process, 305–6 measures, 347 Three-component objectives, 97
Web learning, 289
of intellectual development, 67 orientation, 345 Time, 313
Weeding, 144
of moral development, 68 overview of, 342–43 Time data, 335
Weighting assessment items, 122
of psychosocial development, payoff outcomes, 347 Time management, 316–18
Weighting of items, 122
67 procedures, 344 Timing of implementation, 305
Well-defined problems, 219
Stages of Concern Questionnaire reporting, 349 Timing of summative evaluation,
Well-structured problems, 219
(SoCQ), 307 timing, 344 344
Whole practice, 276–77; see also
Stakeholders, 304, 306 transfer, 347 Toolkits, 320
Psychomotor skills
Standards for project manage- Supplantive strategies, 142–43 Top-down, 289
Willingness, 264
ment, 315 Supplantive, 134 Top-down analysis, 93
Willingness to respond, 264
Standards of performance, 98 Supplantive-generative contin- Top-down approach, 289
Windows of opportunity, 362
Standards, 13, 14, 98 uum, 142 Topic of an analogy, 134
Worked examples, 224
of instructional designers, 14 Support strategies, 244 grounds of an analogy, 134
Working memory, 27
State anxiety, 64 Supra-system, 24 Trade-offs in assessment design,
Working with experts, 52–53
Statistics, 205 Surface features, 220 111–12
World-related structure, 287
Strand, 290 Synchronizing, 144 Trainers’ role, 337–38
World Wide Web (WWW), 364
Strategy, instructional, 8 Synectics model, 245–46 Trainer training, 307
Writing learning goals, 77–78
Strategy instruction, 247 Synthesis, 80 Training, 5
Writing learning objectives, 97–99
Structure of knowledge, 278, 288 System, 24 designers, 12–13
WYSIWYG development tools,
Structures in concept learning, Systematic, 24 Training Delivery Consultant,
323
173–75 Systematic instructional design, 362
Student-centered form of organi- 11–12 Trait anxiety, 64
zation, 293 advantages of, 11–12 Transfer, 130, 138–39, 166, 180, X
Student characteristics, 58 limitations of, 12 197, 210–11, 226, 250, Xerox machine, 146
Student-generated events, 131 Systems theory, 24–25 269, 282, 347
Student interests, 294 Trials, 305, 307
Student-processed summaries, Troubleshooting plan, 314
Y
T
166 True-false items, 110 Yale Communication and Attitude
Subjectivism, 343 Tabula rasa, 22, 58 Trust versus mistrust, 67 Change Program, 262
Subject Outline Curriculum Tailoring, 357 Tuning, 154
Resource and Tutoring Target audience, 58 Types of assessments, 107 Z
Expert System Target population, 58 Types of learning and instruc-
(SOCRATES), 362 Task analysis of a psychomotor tional strategies, 143 Zone of proximal development,
Subsystem, 24 skill, 278 Types of learning, 61, 78 30, 93