EXPERIMENT : 4

AIM : To find focal length of a convex lens by using u - v method for various positions of the
object. Draw the following set of graphs using data from the experiments:

1. ν against u. It will be a curve.

𝑣
2. Magnification 𝑚 = 𝑢 against ν which is a straight line and to find focal length by
intercept.
3. y = (100 / v) against x = (100 / u) which is a straight line and find f by intercepts.
APPARATUS REQUIRED : One optical bench, A convex lens, half metre scale.

THEORY : For a body positioned at a distance ‘u’ from the optical centre of a convex lens
of focal length ‘f ’, an inverted and real image is generated on the lens’s other side at a
distance ‘v’ from the optical centre. The relationship between these quantities is:

1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢

OBSERVATIONS :
The rough focal length of the convex lens = ______ cm.
Least count of the scale (Optical Bench) = ________ cm.
Table for object distance (u) and image distance (v) :
Object Image 𝑣 100 100 𝑢𝑣
Serial 𝑚=𝑢 x= 𝑢 y= 𝑣 f = 𝑢+𝑣 Mean f
distance distance v
No. in cm. in cm. in cm. in cm. in cm.
u in cm. in cm.
1
2
3
4
5
CALCULATION :
Graph : 1 – object distance (u) vs. image distance (v)
From the graph : 1, focal length of the convex lens = _______ cm.
𝑣
Graph : 2 – magnification (𝑚 = 𝑢 ) νs. image distance (v)

From the graph : 2, focal length of the convex lens = _______ cm.
Graph : 3 - y = (100 / v) vs. x = (100 / u)
From the graph : 3, focal length of the convex lens = _______ cm.
RESULT :
Focal length of the convex lens from the observation table = _____ cm.
Focal length of the convex lens from the graph - 1 = _____ cm.
Focal length of the convex lens from the graph - 2 = _____ cm.
Focal length of the convex lens from the graph - 3 = _____ cm.
PRECAUTION :
1. Tips of the image needle and the object needle must lie at the exact height as the
lens’s centre.
2. Parallax must be corrected from tip to tip by placing the eye at a distance minimum of
30 cm. apart from the needle.
3. The object needle must be positioned at such a distance that only an inverted and real
image of the object needle is produced.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be preface.
 EXPERIMENT : 5
AIM : To find f of a convex lens by displacement method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED : One optical bench, A convex lens, half metre scale.
THEORY :
𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
Focal length of the convex lens 𝑓 = 4𝑎

Where, a is the distance between object needle and the image needle respectively, b is
distance between L1 and L2 and f is the focal length of Convex Lens.

OBSERVATIONS :
Rough focal length of the convex lens = ________ cm.
Table for the focal length of convex lens :
Position of Position of
𝑎2 − 𝑏2
Serial Object Image a in b in 𝑓= in Mean f
L1 in L2 in 4𝑎
No. needle needle in cm. cm. cm. in cm.
cm. cm.
in cm. cm.
1

4
CALCULATION :
𝑎2 − 𝑏2
𝑓= = ______ cm.
4𝑎

RESULT :
Observed focal length of the given convex lens = ________ cm.
PRECAUTION :
1. Tips of the image needle and the object needle must lie at the exact height as the
lens’s centre.
2. Parallax must be corrected from tip to tip by placing the eye at a distance minimum of
30 cm. apart from the needle.
3. The object needle must be positioned at such a distance that only an inverted and real
image of the object needle is produced.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be preface.
 EXPERIMENT : 6
AIM : To determine the refractive index of a liquid by using a convex lens and a plane
mirror.

APPARATUS REQUIRED : Convex Lens, Plane Mirror, Optical Needle, transparent

liquid, An iron stand with base and clamp arrangement, Spherometer, Half metre scale

THEORY :
Let us consider f1 and f2 to be the focal length of the glass convex lens and liquid lens
respectively and let F be the focal length of their combination, then
1 1 1
= +
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2
From the lens maker’s formula
We have,
1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1) [ − ]
𝑓2 𝑅1 𝑅2

Simplifying further, we get

1 𝑛−1
=( )
𝑓2 𝑅
Inserting values of f2, n can be calculated.
OBSERVATIONS :
The rough focal length of convex lens = _____ cm.

The distance of Needle Tip Mean Focal Length

Arrangement 𝑥1 +𝑥2
From lens From plane mirror 𝑥 = 2 in cm. x in cm.
surface x1 in cm. x2 in cm.
Without Liquid f1 = ____ cm.

With Liquid F = _____ cm.

The radius of curvature of the convex lens surface,

Distance between two legs of the Spherometer (l) = _____ cm.
Length of the Sagitta (h) = ______ cm.
CALCULATIONS :
𝑙2 ℎ
Radius of curvature of the convex lens R = 6ℎ + = ______ cm.
2
𝑅
Refractive index of the liquid 𝑛 = 1 + = _____ cm.
𝑓2

RESULT :
Refractive index of the given liquid = ______ cm.
PRECAUTIONS :
1. Only a few drops of liquid should be taken so as not to thicken the layer.
2. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.
3. The liquid taken should be transparent.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The liquid may not be quite transparent.
2. The parallax may not be fully removed.
 EXPERIMENT : 7
AIM : To determine the internal resistance of a cell by a potentiometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED : Galvanometer, A battery, potentiometer, rheostat, ammeter,

one way key, Connecting wires, A jockey, a dry cell with box, resistance box (1-10 Ω).
THEORY :
The internal resistance of a cell given by
𝑙 + 𝑙2
𝑟 = ( 1𝑙 ). R
2

Where l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths without shunt and with shunt, respectively, and R is
the shunt resistance in parallel with the given cell.

OBSERVATIONS :
E.M.F of cell = ____ Volt.
Least count of the Ammeter = ______ Ampere.
Table for lengths :

Ammeter Position of null point in cm. Shunt Internal resistance

Serial 𝑙 +𝑙
Reading Without shunt With shunt resistance R 𝑟 = ( 1 𝑙 2). R
No. 2
in Amp. l1 in cm. l2 in cm. in ohm. in cm.
1
2
3

CALCULATIONS :
Mean internal resistance of the given dry cell is _________ ohm.
RESULT :
The internal resistance of the given cell is found to be ______ ohm.
PRECAUTIONS :
1. The e.m.f of the cell should be lesser than the battery.
2. Have an eye to make sure that the ammeter reading remains constant at least for a
single set of readings.
3. Ensure the current is passed only while obtaining the null point.
4. The rheostat should be placed
5. During the experiment, the cell should not be disturbed.
6. There shouldn’t be rubbing of jockey against potentiometer wire.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The instrument screw may be loose.
2. Plugs may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
 EXPERIMENT : 8
AIM : From a potentiometer set up, measure the fall in potential (i.e. pd) for increasing
lengths of a constantan wire, through which a steady current is flowing; plot a graph of pd
(V) versus length (l). Calculate the potential gradient of the wire and specific resistance of its
material.

APPARATUS REQUIRED : A battery, potentiometer, rheostat, ammeter, one way key,

Connecting wires, A jockey, voltmeter.
𝑉
THEORY : Potential gradient (𝛿) = 𝑙 where V is the potential difference and l is the length
of the slide wire.
If R is the resistance of the slide wire having length l and area of cross-section a then,
𝑙
R = S. 𝑎 where S is the specific resistance of the wire.
𝑉
Also, R = 𝐼 (ohm’s Law) where V is the P.D. and I is the constant current,

Now P.D (V) = 𝛿𝑙,

𝑉 𝛿𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
Hence R = = = 𝑆. 𝑎 = 𝑆. 𝜋𝑟 2
𝐼 𝐼

Where r is the radius of the wire.

𝛿𝜋𝑟 2
Specific resistance S = ohm-cm.
𝑙

OBSERVATIONS :
Least count of the ammeter = _______ Ampere.
Least count of the voltmeter = _______ volt.
Table for potential gradient :

Length of the Voltmeter Potential gradient Mean potential

Serial No. 𝑉
wire l in cm. Reading V in volt 𝛿 = 𝑙 in volt / cm. gradient 𝛿
1
2
3
4
5

CALCULATION :
From the graph potential gradient = ______ volt / cm.

Radius of the slide wire using screw gauge :

Least count of the screw gauge = ______ cm.

Main Scale Number of Vernier Scale Radius of the

Measured Mean
Serial Reading coinciding Reading (VSR), 𝐷
Diameter, Diameter wire 𝑟 = 2 in
No. (MSR) in Vernier (N × L.C) in
D = (MSR+VSR) D in cm. cm.
cm. division, N cm.
1.

2.

3.

𝛿𝜋𝑟 2
Specific resistance (S) of the given wire S = = ______ ohm-cm.
𝑙

RESULT :
(i) P.D. (V) is directly proportional to the length (l) of the slide wire for constant
current.
(ii) The specific resistance (S) of the given slide wire = ______ ohm-cm.
PRECAUTIONS :
1. Have an eye to make sure that the ammeter reading remains constant at least for a
single set of readings.
2. There shouldn’t be rubbing of jockey against potentiometer wire.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. The instrument screw may be loose.
2. Plugs may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.