Syllabus

Cambridge International AS & A Level

Psychology 9990
Use this syllabus for exams in 2027.
Exams are available in the June and November series.
Exams are also available in the March series in India.

Version 1
For the purposes of screen readers, any mention in this document of Cambridge IGCSE
refers to Cambridge International General Certificate of Secondary Education.
Why choose Cambridge?
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© Cambridge University Press & Assessment September 2024

Cambridge International Education is the name of our awarding body and a part of Cambridge University Press & Assessment, which is a
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Contents

Why choose Cambridge?................................................................................................ 2

1 Why choose this syllabus? ......................................................................................... 4

2 Syllabus overview ........................................................................................................ 8

Aims 8
Content overview 9
Assessment overview 10
Assessment objectives 12

3 Subject content ..........................................................................................................14

3.1 AS Level Content 14
3.1.1 The core studies 15
3.1.2 Research methodology 20
3.2 A Level Content 24
Specialist Option 1: Clinical Psychology 26
Specialist Option 2: Consumer Psychology 32
Specialist Option 3: Health Psychology 38
Specialist Option 4: Organisational Psychology 44

4 Details of the assessment ........................................................................................ 50

Paper 1 – Approaches, Issues and Debates 50
Paper 2 – Research Methods 50
Paper 3 – Specialist Options: Approaches, Issues and Debates 52
Paper 4 – Specialist Options: Application and Research Methods 52
Command words 55

5 What else you need to know .................................................................................... 56

Before you start 56
Making entries 57
Accessibility and equality 57
After the exam 59
How students, teachers and higher education can use the grades 60
Changes to this syllabus for 2027 61

Important: Changes to this syllabus

The latest syllabus is version 1, published September 2024. There are no significant changes
which affect teaching.
Any textbooks endorsed to support the syllabus for examination from 2024 are still suitable for use with this
syllabus.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027.

1 Why choose this syllabus?

Key benefits
The best motivation for a student is a real passion for the subject
they are learning. Cambridge International AS & A Level give
schools flexibility to offer a broad and balanced curriculum with
a choice of over 50 subjects. Students can select the subjects
they love and that they are best at, enabling them to reach their
potential and thrive.

Following a Cambridge International AS & A Level programme

helps students develop abilities which universities value highly,
including:
• a deep subject knowledge
• conceptual understanding and higher-level thinking skills
• presenting ordered and coherent arguments
• independent learning and research.

Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology encourages learners to think like a psychologist. The
syllabus provides opportunities to explore key concepts and debates that underpin the subject of psychology
and to develop the skills of interpretation, application, analysis and evaluation while studying a range of
stimulating topics and real-world issues.

Our approach in Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology supports the development of learners who
are:

confident, communicating psychological ideas and arguments to others, and exploring contemporary social
issues with maturity and insight

responsible, considering the ethical and moral implications of what they learn and being able to apply it
responsibly

reflective, about one’s own and others’ behaviour and mental processes

innovative, developing informed views about real-world issues, and an ability to think psychologically to
understand problems and respond to different situations

engaged, debating issues and using research findings to understand the world around them.

School feedback: ‘Cambridge students develop a deep understanding of subjects and

independent thinking skills.’
Feedback from: Principal, Rockledge High School, USA

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Why choose this syllabus?

Key concepts
Key concepts are essential ideas that help students develop a deep understanding of their subject and make
links between different aspects. Key concepts may open up new ways of thinking about, understanding or
interpreting the important things to be learned.

Good teaching and learning will incorporate and reinforce a subject’s key concepts to help students gain:
• a greater depth as well as breadth of subject knowledge
• confidence, especially in applying knowledge and skills in new situations
• the vocabulary to discuss their subject conceptually and show how different aspects link together
• a level of mastery of their subject to help them enter higher education.

Carefully introducing and developing key concepts at the right time will help to underpin the teaching. You may
identify additional key concepts which will also enrich teaching and learning.

The key concepts for Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology are:
• Nature versus nurture
A key focus of contemporary psychology is to consider the relative contributions of nature versus
nurture. Behaviours could be seen as resulting from innate, genetic factors (nature) or behaviours could
be explained in terms of the environmental influences that begin to shape us from conception (nurture).
Students should be aware of this debate while planning studies and evaluating studies as part of this
course.
• Ethics
Ethics must be considered when planning a psychological investigation to ensure that data is gathered
without compromising the wellbeing of the participant(s). The approach to ethics in psychological
research has changed over time as our understanding has developed and attitudes towards ethical and
moral implications change. As a result, some of the earlier studies that were the basis of the subject no
longer meet the current guidelines. We should continually evaluate the ethical and moral implications of
psychological research.
• Research methods
Every research method has strengths and weaknesses, and a psychologist must evaluate how the method
they have chosen contributes to the validity and reliability of their specific investigation as well as to wider
psychological research.
• No one view in psychology is definitive
Psychological research is influenced by the approach of the researcher and the time and context they are
working in. Any topic is likely to be studied from the perspective of more than one psychological approach,
and each approach has its own assumptions.
• Relevance of psychology in contemporary society
By understanding psychology, we can improve how we live our lives and society in general. Every study
is undertaken with a specific purpose in mind which can then be applied in everyday life – whether it is
improving how we learn, understanding how groups of people behave or treating a disorder. Students
should be able to recognise how psychological studies of a specific area can be applied to other scenarios
in everyday life.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Why choose this syllabus?

Qualifications that are recognised and valued worldwide

Cambridge qualifications prepare and equip learners with the skills they need to thrive at university and beyond.
The world’s best higher education institutions recognise our qualifications and value the critical thinking skills,
independent research abilities and deep subject knowledge that Cambridge learners bring.

We continually work with universities and colleges in every part of the world to ensure that they understand
and accept our qualifications. More than 2220 universities in over 90 countries formally recognise Cambridge
qualifications, with many more accepting our qualifications on application.

UK ENIC, the national agency in the UK for the recognition and comparison of international qualifications and
skills, has carried out an independent benchmarking study of Cambridge International AS & A Level and found
it to be comparable to the standard of AS & A Level in the UK. This means students can be confident that their
Cambridge International AS & A Level qualifications are accepted as equivalent, grade for grade, to UK AS & A
Levels by leading universities worldwide.

A choice of assessment routes

Cambridge International AS & A Level offers a choice of assessment routes with staged assessment available
in many subjects: Cambridge International AS Level can be offered as a standalone qualification or as part of a
progression to Cambridge International A Level.

Cambridge International AS Level Psychology makes up the first half of the Cambridge International A Level
course in Psychology and provides a foundation for the study of psychology at Cambridge International A Level.
The AS Level can also be delivered as a standalone qualification.] Depending on local university entrance
requirements, students may be able to use it to progress directly to university courses in [subject] or some
other subjects. It is also suitable as part of a course of general education.

Cambridge International A Level Psychology provides a foundation for the study of psychology or related
courses in higher education. Equally it is suitable as part of a course of general education.

For more information about the relationship between the Cambridge International AS Level and Cambridge
International A Level see the ‘Assessment overview’ section of the Syllabus overview.

Visit www.cambridgeinternational.org/recognition-search/ and university websites for the most up-to-date

higher education entry requirements.

Learn more: www.cambridgeinternational.org/recognition

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Why choose this syllabus?

Supporting teachers
We believe education works best when teaching and learning are closely aligned to the curriculum, resources
and assessment. Our high-quality teaching support helps to maximise teaching time and enables teachers to
engage learners of all backgrounds and abilities.

We aim to provide the following support for each Cambridge qualification:

• Syllabus
• Specimen question papers and mark schemes
• Specimen paper answers
• Schemes of Work
• Example candidate responses
• Past papers and mark schemes
• Principal examiner reports for teachers

These resources are available on the School Support Hub at www.cambridgeinternational.org/support, our
secure online site for Cambridge teachers. Your exams officer can provide you with a login.

Additional teaching & learning resources are also available for many syllabuses and vary according to
the nature of the subject and the structure of the assessment of each syllabus. These can include ready-
built lesson materials, digital resources and multimedia for the classroom and homework, guidance on
assessment and much more. Beyond the resources available on the Schools Support Hub, a wide range
of endorsed textbooks and associated teaching and learning support are available from Cambridge at
www.cambridge.org/education and from other publishers. Resources vary according to the nature of the
subject and the structure of the assessment of each syllabus.

You can also contact our global Cambridge community or talk to a senior examiner on our discussion forums.

Sign up for email notifications about changes to syllabuses, including new and revised products and services,
at www.cambridgeinternational.org/syllabusupdates

Professional development
Find the next step on your professional development journey:
• Introduction courses – An introduction to Cambridge programmes and qualifications. For teachers who
are new to Cambridge programmes or new to a specific syllabus.
• Focus on Teaching courses – These are for teachers who want to explore a specific area of teaching
and learning within a syllabus or programme.
• Focus on Assessment courses – These are for teachers who want to understand the assessment of a
syllabus in greater depth.
• Marking workshops – These workshops help you become more familiar with what examiners are looking
for, and provide an opportunity to raise questions and share your experiences of the syllabus.
• Enrichment Professional Development – Transform your approach to teaching with our Enrichment
workshops. Each workshop focuses on a specific area of teaching and learning practice.
• Cambridge Professional Development Qualifications (PDQs) – Practice-based programmes that
transform professional learning for practicing teachers. Available at Certificate and Diploma level.

For more information visit www.cambridgeinternational.org/support-for-teachers

Supporting exams officers

We provide comprehensive support and guidance for all Cambridge exams officers.
Find out more at: www.cambridgeinternational.org/eoguide

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027.

2 Syllabus overview

Aims
The aims describe the purposes of a course based on this syllabus.

The aims are to enable students to develop:

• knowledge and understanding of psychological concepts, theories and research findings
• an understanding of psychological approaches, issues and debates and research methodology
• an awareness of the scientific method and range and limitations of psychological theory and practice
• improved skills in data analysis, evaluation and drawing conclusions
• an awareness of the relationships between psychological findings and everyday life
• an understanding of ethical issues in psychology
• an appreciation and understanding of individual, social and cultural diversity.

We are an education organisation and politically neutral. The contents of this syllabus,
examination papers and associated materials do not endorse any political view. We endeavour to treat all
aspects of the exam process neutrally.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Syllabus overview

Content overview
Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology provides candidates with opportunities to consider the
approaches, issues and debates and research methodology that underpin all aspects of psychology.

At AS Level candidates study four psychological approaches:

• Biological
• Cognitive
• Learning
• Social

Each approach is exemplified though 12 core studies. The core studies illustrate a wide range of research
methods used in psychology, such as experiments, self-reports, case studies, observations, correlations and
longitudinal studies. By exploring the relationship between the content of the study and the research methods,
candidates will gain a broad understanding of how psychologists study experiences and behaviours and why
the research took place.

Candidates for Cambridge International A Level Psychology study the AS Level content and two of the
following specialist options:
1 Clinical Psychology
This option considers the diagnostic criteria, symptoms, explanations and treatments for a variety of mental
and behavioural disorders/conditions.
2 Consumer Psychology
This option reflects consumer society and looks at both consumers and sellers as well as the design of
consumer environments.
3 Health Psychology
This option focuses on the psychological factors that influence health, considers ways to measure and treat
conditions such as pain and stress, and ways to influence behaviours around health and health choices.
4 Organisational Psychology
This option considers workplaces and organisations and how individuals and groups within an organisation
function, influence each other and have an impact on the organisation.

These A Level options are diverse but each specialist option is balanced and equivalent in terms of content and
demand. A number of key studies are specified for each specialist option, along with some additional studies
which may be useful as examples of research in each area.

School feedback: ‘Cambridge International AS & A Levels prepare students well for university
because they’ve learnt to go into a subject in considerable depth. There’s that ability to really
understand the depth and richness and the detail of a subject. It’s a wonderful preparation for
what they are going to face at university.’
Feedback from: US Higher Education Advisory Council

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Syllabus overview

Assessment overview
AS Level candidates take two compulsory papers, Papers 1 and 2. A Level candidates take four compulsory
papers, Papers 1, 2, 3 and 4.

All AS Level candidates take: A Level candidates also take:

Paper 1 Paper 3

Approaches, Issues and Debates Specialist Options: Approaches, Issues and

 1 hour 30 minutes Debates 1 hour 30 minutes
60 marks 60 marks
Section A: Short answer questions based on Candidates answer questions from two specialist
core studies (38 marks). options. Each specialist option is out of 30
Section B: Extended response and essay marks.
questions, based on core studies (22 marks). Externally assessed
Externally assessed 25% of the A Level
50% of the AS Level
25% of the A Level

And: And:

Paper 2 Paper 4

Research Methods 1 hour 30 minutes Specialist Options: Application and Research

60 marks Methods 1 hour 30 minutes
Section A: Short answer questions and scenario- 60 marks
based questions (46 marks). Section A: Candidates answer questions from
Section B: A planning question divided into two specialist options. Each specialist option is
several parts (14 marks). out of 18 marks.
Externally assessed Section B: A planning question divided into
several parts (24 marks).
50% of the AS Level
Externally assessed
25% of the A Level
25% of the A Level

Information on availability is in the Before you start section.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Syllabus overview

There are three routes for Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology:
Route Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3 Paper 4

1 AS Level only
(Candidates take all AS yes yes no no
components in the same exam
series)

2 A Level (staged over two years)

Year 1 AS Level* yes yes no no

Year 2 Complete the A Level yes yes

3 A Level
(Candidates take all components in yes yes yes yes
the same exam series)

* Candidates carry forward their AS Level marks subject to the rules and time limits described in the Cambridge
Handbook. See Making entries for more information about carrying forward marks.

Candidates following an AS Level route are eligible for grades a–e. Candidates following an A Level route are
eligible for grades A*–E.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Syllabus overview

Assessment objectives
The assessment objectives (AOs) are:

AO1 Knowledge and understanding

Demonstrating knowledge and understanding of:
• psychological terminology, concepts, theories, studies, evidence and methodology including research
methods, issues and debates
• the theoretical, ethical and practical considerations that influence the planning and conduct of
psychological research
• psychological techniques used by psychologists in everyday life.

AO2 Application
Using knowledge and understanding of psychology, as listed above, so that it can be applied to a range of
scenarios.

Scenarios could be familiar or unfamiliar and may be taken from a range of everyday life or theoretical contexts.

This includes:
• explaining how psychology is applicable to a particular scenario, context or issue
• using and applying information in words or using other forms of presentation
• using relevant psychology to support points or develop arguments
• demonstrating awareness of the links between psychology used to support points or develop arguments
• using knowledge and understanding to plan an investigation.

AO3 Analysis and evaluation

Analysing and evaluating psychological concepts, theories, studies, evidence and methodology in terms of
issues and debates.

This includes:
• recognising bias in psychological data, research and studies
• explaining the strengths and weaknesses of psychological concepts, theories, studies and methodology
and of candidates’ plans for investigations
• being able to use a range and/or variety of evidence to demonstrate the complexity of psychological issues
and debates
• reaching conclusions about arguments based on a reasoned consideration of available evidence.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Syllabus overview

Weighting for assessment objectives

The approximate weightings allocated to each of the assessment objectives (AOs) are summarised below.

Assessment objectives as a percentage of the qualification

Assessment objective Weighting in AS Level % Weighting in A Level %

AO1 Knowledge and understanding 35 30

AO2 Application 35 35

AO3 Analysis and evaluation 30 35

Total 100 100

Assessment objectives as a percentage of each component

Assessment objective Weighting in components %

Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3 Paper 4

AO1 Knowledge and understanding 53 22 26 26

AO2 Application 17 50 26 44

AO3 Analysis and evaluation 30 28 48 30

Total 100 100 100 100

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027.

3 Subject content

This syllabus gives you the flexibility to design a course that will interest, challenge and engage your learners.
Where appropriate you are responsible for selecting resources and examples, topics and subject contexts
to support your learners’ study. These should be appropriate for the learners’ age, cultural background and
learning context as well as complying with your school policies and local legal requirements.

Note: for the purposes of the subject content and assessment material we will use the terms used in ICD-11
where applicable. We are aware that this set of guidelines is not used universally and will accept alternative
terms if used appropriately.

Candidates for Cambridge International AS Level should study the AS Level content for Papers 1 and 2.
Candidates for Cambridge International A Level should study the AS Level content and two of the specialist
options in the A Level subject content for Papers 3 and 4.

3.1 AS Level Content

The AS Level course consists of approaches, issues and debates and research methodology that underpin the
study of psychology.
These fundamental aspects of psychology are taught and assessed through 12 compulsory core studies
and the approaches, issues and debates and research methodology should be considered for each study as
relevant.
The AS Level core studies have been chosen to give learners a broad range of topic areas as well as
knowledge of research methodology. The research methodology is described on pages 20–23.
Each of the approaches is supported by three core studies presented below in alphabetical order. This is not a
recommended teaching order, they can be taught in any order. Some core studies could be considered in the
context of a number of approaches.

Biological
• Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams)
• Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences)
• Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans)

Cognitive
• Andrade (doodling)
• Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test)
• Pozzulo et al. (line-ups)

Learning
• Bandura et al. (aggression)
• Fagen et al. (elephant learning)
• Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia)

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Social
• Milgram (obedience)
• Perry et al. (personal space)
• Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans)

AS Level issues and debates

At AS Level, the issues and debates that candidates will need to consider in relation to each of the core studies,
where appropriate, are:
• the application of psychology to everyday life
• individual and situational explanations
• nature versus nurture
• the use of children in psychological research
• the use of animals in psychological research.

3.1.1 The core studies

The 12 compulsory core studies are listed below under the four approaches.

The requirements are the same for each of the four approaches at AS Level.

For each of the core studies, candidates should show understanding of:
• the psychology that is being investigated
• the background to the study
• the aim(s) of the study
• the procedure of the study, including all methodology as appropriate, such as the research methods used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling technique [if known], experimental design, controls,
question types, research technique for data collection and measured and manipulated variables
• the ethical issues relating to the study
• the results of the study, including the main/significant quantitative findings, the main qualitative findings
and how they are or could be represented and interpreted
• the conclusion(s) the psychologist(s) drew or that could be drawn from the study
• the strengths and weaknesses of all elements of the study.

Candidates should be able to:

• describe and evaluate the methodology used
• consider how the study relates to psychological issues and debates.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Biological approach

Main assumptions of the biological approach:

• Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be explained in terms of the working of the brain and the effect
of hormones, genetics and evolution.
• Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of biological factors and their
interaction with other factors.

Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams)

Dement, W and Kleitman, N (1957), The relation of eye movements during sleep to dream activity: An
objective method for the study of dreaming. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 53(5): 339–46
The study by Dement and Kleitman investigated the relationship between rapid eye movements (REM) and
dreaming. It included EEGs, REM and Non-REM sleep, used experimental and correlational methods and an
interview technique.
The psychology being investigated includes: sleep; dreaming; ultradian rhythms.

Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences)

Hassett, J M, Siebert, E R and Wallen, K (2008), Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences parallel
those of children. Hormones and Behaviour, 54(3): 359–64
The study by Hassett et al. was an experiment investigating sex differences for toy preferences in monkeys,
whose behaviour is assumed to be more biologically controlled than that of children. Interactions with
stereotypical boys’ toys and girls’ toys were observed and coded using a behavioural checklist. Human
participants were not included in this study. To compare monkey toy preferences to those of children, data
from another study was used.
The psychology being investigated includes: sex differences; socialisation; play; the role of hormones.

Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans)

Hölzel, B K, Carmody, J, Vangel, M, Congleton, C, Yerramsetti, S M, Gard, T and Lazar, S W (2011),
Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density. Psychiatry Research, 191(1):
36–43
The study by Hölzel et al. investigated the effects of mindfulness practice on brain structure in an experiment
using a longitudinal design. The techniques used included MRI scans and self-reports. The study also used
correlations.
The psychology being investigated includes: mindfulness; localisation of function.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Cognitive approach

Main assumptions of the cognitive approach:

• Information is processed through the same route in all humans: input – process – output, in a similar way
to how information is processed by a computer.
• People have individual differences in their cognitive processing such as with attention, language, thinking
and memory. These processes can also help to explain behaviour and emotion.

Andrade (doodling)
Andrade, J (2010), What does doodling do? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(1): 100–6
The study by Andrade explored the idea that doodling can assist a person’s concentration and memory. This
was investigated in a laboratory experiment.
The psychology being investigated includes: attention; memory.

Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test)

Baron-Cohen, S, Wheelwright, S, Hill, J, Raste, Y and Plumb, I (2001), The ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’
Test revised version: a study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning
autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(2): 241–51
The study by Baron-Cohen et al. investigated theory of mind in adults including those with Asperger
syndrome or autism. The study aimed to improve the original 1997 ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ Test, a
questionnaire that was completed online. The research methods used in this study included experiments
and correlations.
The psychology being investigated includes: theory of mind; social sensitivity.

Pozzulo et al. (line-ups)

Pozzulo, J D, Dempsey, J, Bruer, K and Sheahan, C (2011), The Culprit in Target-Absent Lineups:
Understanding Young Children’s False Positive Responding. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology,
27(1): 55–62
The study by Pozzulo et al. investigated factors affecting memory for target faces in a line-up, as used
in identification of a criminal by an eyewitness. This was tested using the faces of cartoon characters
and humans. The laboratory experiment also made comparisons between adults and children and used
interviews and questionnaires as techniques.
The psychology being investigated includes: false positive responses; eyewitness testimony.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Learning approach

Main assumptions of the learning approach:

• We all begin life as a blank slate. Experiences and interactions with the environment shape our behaviour
and these changes are directly observable.
• We learn through the processes of operant conditioning, classical conditioning and social learning. This
can be understood using the stimulus-response model.

Bandura et al. (aggression)

Bandura, A, Ross, D and Ross, S A (1961), Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive
models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3): 575–82
The study by Bandura et al. tested social learning theory. The study investigated whether a child would
imitate aggressive behaviour if they witnessed such behaviour in an adult. The study was an experiment
comparing several variables using observation as a technique to collect data.
The psychology being investigated includes: social learning theory; aggression.

Fagen et al. (elephant learning)

Fagen, A, Acharya, N and Kaufman, G E (2014), Positive Reinforcement Training for a Trunk Wash in Nepal’s
Working Elephants: Demonstrating Alternatives to Traditional Elephant Training Techniques. Journal of
Applied Animal Welfare Science, 17(2): 83–97
The study by Fagen et al. investigated the use of positive reinforcement training for trunk washing in a group
of working elephants to improve captive management and welfare. Secondary reinforcement training was
used to train the elephants to perform specific behaviours. The research method was an observation with
success measured using a behavioural checklist.
The psychology being investigated includes: operant conditioning; reinforcement (positive, negative, primary
and secondary); shaping; behavioural chaining.

Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia)

Saavedra, L M and Silverman, W K (2002), Case study: disgust and a specific phobia of buttons. Journal of
the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(11): 1376–79
Saavedra and Silverman studied a child with button phobia. They investigated how classical conditioning can
be used to treat a child’s phobia by targeting disgust and fear responses. The case study research method
was used with interviews, various scales and observations as techniques.
The psychology being investigated includes: evaluative learning; operant conditioning; classical conditioning;
phobias.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Social approach

Main assumptions of the social approach:

• Behaviour, cognitions and emotions are influenced by social contexts, social environments and groups.
• Behaviour, cognitions and emotions are influenced by the actual, implied or imagined presence of others.

Milgram (obedience)
Milgram, S (1963), Behavioral Study of Obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4): 371–78
The study by Milgram investigated the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience
and how far a person would go in obeying an instruction if it meant harming another person. This includes
considering dispositional and situational hypotheses. A laboratory setting was used to measure obedience,
described as a ‘dependent variable’ but there was no independent variable in the main study. The study
used observations and an interview as techniques.
Please Note: Milgram conducted many variations on this study. This study did not provide the ‘teacher’ with
voice-feedback from the ‘victim’.
The psychology being investigated includes: obedience; social pressure.

Perry et al. (personal space)

Perry, A, Mankuta, D and Shamay-Tsoory, S G (2015), OT promotes closer interpersonal distance among
highly empathic individuals. Social, Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10(1): 3–9
The study by Perry et al. investigated personal space (interpersonal distance). They tested how empathy
and oxytocin affected the perception of personal space using a placebo to compare to oxytocin. Two
experiments used different techniques to measure interpersonal distance and questionnaires were also used.
Experiment 1 used a computerised version of the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Scale. In Experiment
2, participants chose between pictures of different rooms.
The psychology being investigated includes: interpersonal distance (personal space); social hormones;
empathy.

Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans)

Piliavin, I M, Rodin, J and Piliavin, J A (1969), Good Samaritanism: An Underground Phenomenon? Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 13(4): 289–99
The study by Piliavin et al. tested bystander apathy. The study investigated how bystanders behave in
real life situations and the factors that can affect their desire to help. This includes considering diffusion of
responsibility. The study was a field experiment and used observations as a technique.
The psychology being investigated includes: bystander apathy; diffusion of responsibility.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

3.1.2 Research methodology

Candidates need to understand research methodology used by psychologists to investigate human and
animal behaviour.

See section 4 Details of Assessment for more information on what candidates should be able to do with the
subject content in this section for the planning studies questions in Paper 2 on page 50.

Research methods
Experiments
Candidates should be able to:
• describe the main features of each type of experiment:
– laboratory
– field
• evaluate each type of experiment, in terms of:
– reliability
– validity
– ethics
• describe and evaluate experimental designs as used in psychological research (independent measures,
matched pairs and repeated measures)
• describe and evaluate concepts relating to experimental designs including counterbalancing, random
allocation, order effects (fatigue and practice)
• evaluate the use of experiments in psychological research, including the use of experimental and control
groups / control conditions
• apply knowledge of experiments to a given novel research scenario.

Self-reports
Candidates should be able to:
• describe the main features of each type of self-report:
– questionnaire, including technique (paper and pencil / online) and question format (open and closed
questions)
– interview, including format (structured / unstructured / semi-structured), technique (telephone / face-to-
face) and question format (open and closed questions)
• evaluate the use of self-reports in psychological research
• apply knowledge of self-reports to a given novel research scenario.

Case studies
Candidates should be able to:
• describe the case study method, including the main features: a single participant/unit; studied in detail
• evaluate the use of case studies in psychological research
• apply knowledge of case studies to a given novel research scenario.

Observations
Candidates should be able to:
• describe the main features of an observation (e.g. overt / covert, participant / non-participant,
structured / unstructured, naturalistic / controlled)
• evaluate the use of observations in psychological research
• apply knowledge of observations to a given novel research scenario.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Correlations
Candidates should be able to:
• describe correlations, positive and negative correlations and strength of correlations
• identify and give operational definitions for co-variables (measured variables)
• evaluate the use of correlations in psychological research, including lack of causality
• apply knowledge of correlations to a given novel research scenario.

Longitudinal studies
Candidates should be able to:
• describe longitudinal studies, including experiments with longitudinal designs
• evaluate the use of longitudinal studies, including experiments with longitudinal designs
• apply knowledge of longitudinal studies, including experiments with longitudinal designs, to a given novel
research scenario.

Methodological concepts
Aims and hypotheses
Candidates should be able to:
• describe and write aims
• describe and recognise null hypotheses and alternative hypotheses including directional (one-tailed) and
non-directional (two-tailed) hypotheses.

Variables
Candidates should be able to:
• describe what is meant by an independent variable and a dependent variable
• describe how dependent variables can be measured
• identify independent variables and dependent variables in studies
• understand what is meant by an ‘operational definition’
• operationalise:
– an independent variable
– a dependent variable
• apply knowledge of variables to a novel research situation.

Controlling of variables
Candidates should be able to:
• describe how psychologists can control variables (use ‘controls’) in a study
• understand control of variables / standardisation of a procedure
• understand uncontrolled, participant and situational variables
• apply knowledge of control of variables (‘controls’) to a novel research situation.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Types of data
Candidates should be able to:
• describe what is meant by quantitative and qualitative data and subjective and objective data
• evaluate the use of types of data as collected in psychological research
• apply knowledge of types of data to a novel research situation.

Sampling of participants
Candidates should be able to:
• describe what is meant by the sample and population, and the sampling techniques of opportunity
sampling, random sampling and volunteer (self-selecting) sampling
• evaluate different sampling techniques as used in psychological research, including generalisations
• apply knowledge of sampling techniques to a novel research situation.

Ethics
Candidates should be able to:
• describe ethical guidelines as used in psychological research, in relation to human participants:
– minimising harm (and maximising benefit)
– valid consent including informed consent
– right to withdraw
– lack of deception
– confidentiality
– privacy
– debriefing
• describe ethical guidelines as used in psychological research, in relation to animals:
– minimising harm (and maximising benefit)
– replacement
– species
– numbers
– procedures
○ pain, suffering and distress
○ housing
○ reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli
• evaluate studies based on ethical guidelines
• apply knowledge of ethical guidelines to a novel research situation.

Validity
Candidates should be able to:
• describe validity, including ecological validity
• evaluate studies based on their validity:
– subjectivity / objectivity
– demand characteristics
– generalisability
• apply knowledge of validity to a novel research situation.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Reliability and replicability

Candidates should be able to:
• describe different types of reliability, including inter-rater and inter-observer reliability, test-retest reliability
• evaluate studies based on their reliability
• apply knowledge of reliability to a given novel research situation
• understand replicability
• apply understanding of replicability to the planning of studies.

Data analysis
Candidates should be able to:
• present and interpret data in tables
• understand the meaning of ‘measure of central tendency’
• name, recognise and know how to find measures of central tendency:
– mode
– median (no calculation necessary)
– mean (no calculation necessary)
• understand the meaning of ‘measure of spread’
– name, recognise and know how to find range
– recognise, interpret and understand standard deviation
• name, recognise, draw, change and interpret data from a:
– bar chart
– histogram
– scatter graph.

Note: Candidates will not be required to carry out calculations.

Note: Candidates will not be required to understand or interpret statistical tests or findings other than as
specified.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

3.2 A Level Content

The content of the AS Level course, including research methodology, is assumed knowledge for the
assessment of Paper 3 and Paper 4. The core studies will not be the direct focus of questions on Paper 3 and
Paper 4 but candidates will be expected to build upon their knowledge of approaches, issues and debates and
psychological research methodology during their study of the A Level specialist options. The specialist options
introduced at A Level explore how psychology can be applied in a range of contexts.

Candidates study how psychology is applied in two of the following areas:

• Clinical Psychology
• Consumer Psychology
• Health Psychology
• Organisational Psychology

A Level issues and debates

At A Level, the issues and debates that candidates will need to consider in relation to each of the specialist
options, as appropriate, are:
• the application of psychology to everyday life
• individual and situational explanations
• nature versus nurture
• the use of children in psychological research
• cultural differences
• reductionism versus holism
• determinism versus free-will
• idiographic versus nomothetic.

Research methods and methodological concepts

At A Level we assume knowledge of the research methodology studied at AS Level. Candidates are expected
to apply their knowledge of AS Level research methodology to the A Level content. In addition we introduce
some new research methods and methodological concepts relevant to A Level studies.

See section 4 Details of Assessment for more information on what candidates should be able to do with the
AS and A Level Research Methodology subject content for the planning studies questions in Paper 4 on
page 52.

Research methods which are relevant to some of the A Level studies.

Experiments
Candidates should be able to:
• describe and evaluate the main features of randomised control trials.

Questionnaires
Candidates should be able to:
• describe and evaluate the use of postal questionnaires
• describe and evaluate the use of rating scales; forced/fixed choice.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Methodological concepts which are relevant to all of the A Level specialist options.

Psychometric tests
Candidates should be able to:
• describe and evaluate psychometric tests.

Hypotheses
Candidates should be able to:
• write and apply knowledge of null hypotheses and alternative directional (one-tailed) and non-directional
(two-tailed) hypotheses.

Validity
Candidates should be able to:
• describe and evaluate studies based on their validity, including temporal validity.

Use of studies
Psychology is an applied subject and teachers are encouraged to illustrate the theory and application of the
concepts, theories, evidence and research through the use of studies where appropriate.

There are key studies associated with each topic. We have listed the specific aspects of key studies that a
candidate will be expected to know and understand. These aspects are listed at the start of each specialist
option. It is not necessary for candidates to read the original study but you must provide them with a detailed
summary of the key study which must cover all the aspects listed.

To aid teaching and ensure candidates can see how psychological research relates to the subject content
we have provided some examples of studies which might be useful to you in your teaching. Where we say,
‘including a study, e.g.’, candidates will not be asked questions which require a specific knowledge of these
studies, however candidates should use an example in their responses. Where an example is provided, it does
not necessarily cover all the relevant content and you may provide a different example if you know of one which
sufficiently covers the subject content using appropriate research methodology.

A full reference to all the key studies and example studies can be found in the Reference List for 9990
AS & A Level Psychology, available on the website.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Specialist Option 1: Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology is the study of a range of mental and behavioural disorders/conditions and the potential
explanations and available treatments for them. There are many competing explanations and treatments for
the conditions/disorders. Candidates will be expected to understand the strengths and weaknesses of these
explanations and treatments and compare them with each other. Candidates should have the opportunity to
explore the different issues and debates relevant to the psychological theories and concepts and the research
methods used to investigate these conditions/disorders.

For all topics and studies, candidates should be able to:

• describe, evaluate and compare the psychological theories, research, approaches, explanations and
treatments/therapies
• describe and evaluate research methods and methodological concepts (for AS and A Level)
• consider how the topic area relates to psychological issues and debates (for AS and A Level)
• apply the findings of the study and topic area to the real world.

After each topic there is a list of issues and debates and research methodology which are most relevant to the
topic. This list is not exhaustive and teachers may use other relevant issues and methodology in their teaching.

At A Level we assume knowledge of the approaches studied at AS Level (biological, cognitive, learning and
social) but we introduce the following terms for this option.

• Biological
– explanations (genetic, biochemical)
– measures (such as blood pressure)
– treatments (such as electro-convulsive therapy)
• Psychological
– explanations (behavioural, cognitive and psychodynamic)
– therapies (such as systematic desensitisation)

Key Studies
Freeman, D, Slater, M, Bebbington, P E, Garety, P A, Kuipers, E, Fowler, D, Met, A, Read, C, Jordan, J and
Vinayagamoorthy, V (2003), Can virtual reality be used to investigate persecutory ideation? The Journal of
Nervous and Mental Disease, 191(8): 509–14

Oruč, L, Verheyen, G R, Furac, I, Jakovljević, M, Ivezić, S, Raeymaekers, P and Broeckhoven, C V (1997),

Association analysis of the 5‐HT2C receptor and 5‐HT transporter genes in bipolar disorder. American Journal
of Medical Genetics, 74(5): 504–6

Grant, J E, Kim, S W, Hollander, E and Potenza, M N (2008), Predicting response to opiate antagonists and
placebo in the treatment of pathological gambling. Psychopharmacology, 200(4): 521–27

Chapman, L K and DeLapp, R C (2013), Nine Session Treatment of a Blood–Injection–Injury Phobia With
Manualized Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: An Adult Case Example. Clinical Case Studies, 20(10): 299–312

Lovell, K, Cox, D, Haddock, G, Jones, C, Raines, D, Garvey, R, Roberts, C and Hadley, S (2006), Telephone
administered cognitive behaviour therapy for treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder: randomised
controlled non-inferiority trial. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 333(7574): 883

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

For each of the key studies, candidates should show knowledge and understanding of:
• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

For each key study candidates should be able to:

• describe and evaluate research methods used in and methodological concepts included in the study (for
AS and A Level)
• describe and evaluate the psychological issues and debates (for AS and A Level) included in the study.

Note: for the purposes of the subject content and assessment material we will use the terms used in
ICD-11. We are aware that this set of guidelines is not used universally and will accept alternative terms if used
appropriately.

1.1 Schizophrenia
1.1.1 Diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia

• diagnostic criteria (ICD-11) of schizophrenia, including symptoms (positive and negative). A case study of
schizophrenia.
• types of delusions focusing on investigating delusions using virtual reality (exemplified by the following
key study).
Key study using virtual reality to investigate persecutory ideation: Freeman et al. (2003).

 elevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
R
use of children in research, idiographic versus nomothetic, case studies, generalisations from findings.

1.1.2 Explanations of schizophrenia

• biological explanations:
– genetic
– biochemical (the dopamine hypothesis).
• psychological (cognitive) explanation.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
nature versus nurture, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, idiographic versus
nomothetic.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

1.1.3 Treatment and management of schizophrenia

• biological treatments:
– biochemical including typical and atypical antipsychotics
– electro-convulsive therapy.
• psychological therapy: cognitive-behavioural therapy, including a study, e.g. Sensky et al. (2000).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: idiographic versus nomothetic,
experiments, longitudinal studies, generalisations from findings, ethics.

1.2 Mood (affective) disorders: depressive disorder (unipolar) and bipolar

disorder
1.2.1 Diagnostic criteria for mood (affective) disorders

• diagnostic criteria (ICD-11) of mood disorders: depressive disorder (unipolar) and bipolar disorders
including manic and depressive episodes.
• measure of depression: Beck depression inventory.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
cultural differences, quantitative and qualitative data, psychometrics, validity.

1.2.2 Explanations of mood (affective) disorders: depressive disorder (unipolar)

• biological explanations:
– biochemical
– genetic (exemplified by the following key study).
Key study on association analysis of genetics of depressive disorder: Oruč et al. (1997).
• psychological explanations:
– Beck’s cognitive theory of depression
– learned helplessness/attributional style, including a study, e.g. Seligman et al. (1988).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: nature versus nurture, reductionism
versus holism, determinism versus free-will, experiments, reliability.

1.2.3 Treatment and management of mood (affective) disorders

• biological treatments including the use of anti-depressants (tricyclics, MAOIs and SSRIs).
• psychological therapies:
– Beck’s cognitive restructuring
– Ellis’s rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual
and situational explanations, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, generalisations from
findings.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

1.3 Impulse control disorders

1.3.1 Diagnostic criteria for impulse control disorders

• diagnostic criteria (ICD-11) of impulse control disorders:

– kleptomania
– pyromania
– gambling disorder.
• measure of impulse control disorders: Kleptomania Symptom Assessment Scale (K-SAS).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: idiographic versus nomothetic,
questionnaires, case studies, quantitative and qualitative data, objective and subjective data.

1.3.2 Explanations of impulse control disorders

• biological explanation: dopamine.

• psychological explanations:
– behavioural: positive reinforcement
– cognitive: Miller’s feeling-state theory.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual
and situational explanations, nature versus nurture, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will.

1.3.3 Treatment and management of impulse control disorders

• biological treatments (exemplified by the following key study).

Key study on treating gambling disorder with drugs and placebo: Grant et al. (2008).
• psychological (cognitive-behavioural) therapies including:
– covert sensitisation, including a study, e.g. Glover (1985)
– imaginal desensitisation, including a study, e.g. Blaszczynski and Nower (2003).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life,
reductionism versus holism, idiographic versus nomothetic, interviews, generalisations from findings.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

1.4 Anxiety disorders and fear-related disorders

1.4.1 Diagnostic criteria for anxiety disorders and fear-related disorders

• diagnostic criteria (ICD-11) of anxiety disorders and fear-related disorders:

– generalised anxiety disorder
– agoraphobia
– specific phobia (blood-injection-injury).
• measures of anxiety and fear-related disorders:
– Generalised Anxiety Disorder assessment (GAD-7).
– the blood injection phobia inventory (BIPI), including a study, e.g. Mas et al. (2010).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: questionnaires, psychometrics,
subjective and objective data, validity, reliability.

1.4.2 Explanations of fear-related disorders

• biological explanation: genetic, including a study, e.g. Öst (1992).

• psychological explanations:
– behavioural (classical conditioning), including a study, e.g. Watson and Rayner (1920) ‘Little Albert’
– psychodynamic, including a study, e.g. Freud (1909) ‘Little Hans’.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: nature versus nurture, determinism
versus free-will, case studies, longitudinal studies, validity.

1.4.3 Treatment and management of anxiety disorders and fear-related disorders

• behavioural therapy: systematic desensitisation applied to any fear-related disorder.

• psychological therapy (exemplified by the following key study):
– cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)
– applied tension focusing on treating blood/injection/injury phobia.
Key study on treating blood/injection/injury phobia using cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) with applied
tension: Chapman and DeLapp (2013).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: idiographic versus nomothetic, case
studies, self-reports, longitudinal studies, generalisations from findings.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

1.5 Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

1.5.1 Diagnostic criteria for obsessive-compulsive disorder

• diagnostic criteria for obsessive-compulsive disorder (ICD-11) focusing on types of obsessions and
compulsions, including a study, e.g. Rapoport (1989) ‘Charles’.
• measures:
– Maudsley Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (MOCI)
– Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: interviews, case studies, quantitative
and qualitative data, psychometrics, validity.

1.5.2 Explanations of obsessive-compulsive disorder

• biological explanations:
– biochemical
– genetic.
• psychological explanations:
– cognitive (thinking error)
– behavioural (operant conditioning)
– psychodynamic.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
nature versus nurture, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, idiographic versus
nomothetic.

1.5.3 Treatment and management of obsessive-compulsive disorder

• biological treatments including the use of SSRIs.

• psychological therapies including:
– exposure and response prevention (ERP), including a study, e.g. Lehmkuhl et al. (2008)
– cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) (exemplified by the following key study).
Key study on treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder using telephone administered cognitive-
behavioural therapy (CBT): Lovell et al. (2006).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
cultural differences, use of children in research, case studies, reliability.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Specialist Option 2: Consumer Psychology

Consumer Psychology is the study of human behaviour in relation to the retail environment. For this option
candidates look at different areas of consumer environments (shops, restaurants and online) and consider
how psychology can affect consumer patterns and decision-making. Candidates will also explore the reaction
and preferences of consumers to the packaging of products, the marketing of products and the advertising of
products. Candidates should have the opportunity to explore the different issues and debates relevant to the
psychological theories and concepts and the research methods used to investigate consumer psychology.

For all topics and studies, candidates should be able to:

• describe, evaluate and compare the psychological theories, research, approaches and explanations.
• describe and evaluate research methods and methodological concepts (for AS and
A Level)
• consider how the topic area relates to psychological issues and debates (for AS and A Level)
• apply the findings of the study and topic area to the real world.

After each topic there is a list of issues and debates and research methodology which are most relevant to the
topic. This list is not exhaustive and teachers may use other relevant issues and methodology in their teaching.

Key Studies
North, A C, Shilcock, A and Hargreaves, D J (2003), The Effect of Musical Style on Restaurant Customers’
Spending. Environment and Behavior, 35(5): 712–18

Robson, S K, Kimes, S E, Becker, F D and Evans, G W (2011), Consumers’ Responses to Table Spacing in
Restaurants. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 52(3): 253–64

Hall, L, Johansson, P, Tärning, B, Sikström, S and Deutgen, T (2010), Magic at the marketplace: Choice
blindness for the taste of jam and the smell of tea. Cognition, 117(1): 54–61

Becker, L, van Rompay, T J, Schifferstein, H N and Galetzka, M (2011), Tough package, strong taste: The
influence of packaging design on taste impressions and product evaluations. Food Quality and Preference,
22(1): 17–23

Snyder, M and DeBono, K G (1985), Appeals to image and claims about quality: Understanding the psychology
of advertising. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(3): 586–97

For each of the key studies, candidates should show knowledge and understanding of:
• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

For each key study candidates should be able to:

• describe and evaluate research methods used in and methodological concepts included in the study (for
AS and A Level)
• describe and evaluate the psychological issues and debates (for AS and A Level) included in the study.

2.1 The physical environment

2.1.1 Retail store design

• types of store exterior design including storefront, window displays and landscaping, including a study,
e.g. Mower et al. (2012).
• types of store interior design including grid, freeform and racetrack layouts; use of virtual store layouts,
including a study, e.g. Vrechopoulos et al. (2004).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: cultural differences, questionnaires,
quantitative and qualitative data, objective and subjective data, ecological validity.

2.1.2 Sound and consumer behaviour

• music in restaurants focusing on how background music influences the amount spent on food and drink
(exemplified by the following Key Study).
Key study on musical style and restaurant customers’ spending: North et al. (2003).
• background noise focusing on how sound and noise affect the perception of food taste including
reasons why sound influences taste, including a study, e.g. Woods et al. (2011) study 1 or study 2.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, generalisations from findings, validity.

2.1.3 Retail atmospherics

• model of effects of ambience: Mehrabian and Russell’s pleasure-arousal-dominance (PAD) model.

• the effects of odour on shopper pleasure-arousal-dominance, including a study, e.g. Chebat and Michon
(2003).
• the effects of crowding on shopper pleasure-arousal-dominance, including a study, e.g. Machleit et al.
(2000) study 1 or study 2.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, cultural
differences, questionnaires, quantitative and qualitative data, objective and subjective data.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

2.2 The psychological environment

2.2.1 Environmental influences on consumers

• wayfinding in shopping malls; factors affecting wayfinding such as signs and you are here maps,
including a study, e.g. Dogu and Erkip (2000).
• shopper behaviour focusing on spatial movement patterns including types of trip (short, round, central
and wave) and the five types of spatial behaviour patterns (specialist, native, tourist, explorer, raider); the
use of CCTV tracking, including a study, e.g. Gil et al. (2009).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: reductionism versus holism, idiographic
versus nomothetic, questionnaires, generalisations from findings, reliability.

2.2.2 Menu design psychology

• menu design focusing on the features of menu design which have positive and negative impacts and
ways to study this, including the use of eye-tracking, e.g. Pavesic (2005).
• the effect of primacy and recency and menu item position on menu item choice, including a study,
e.g. Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011).
• the effect of food name on menu item choice, including a study, e.g. Lockyer (2006).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, field
experiments, objective and subjective data, generalisations from findings, validity.

2.2.3 Consumer behaviour and personal space

• personal space at restaurant tables including Hall’s four zones; functions such as overload, arousal and
behaviour constraint (exemplified by the following key study).
Key study on consumers responses to table spacing: Robson et al. (2011).
• defending place in a queue including nature of intrusion, number of intrusions, social structure of a
queue, responses of people queuing, including a study, e.g. Milgram et al. (1986).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
cultural differences, observations, quantitative and qualitative data, ethics.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

2.3 Consumer decision-making

2.3.1 Consumer decision-making

• models of consumer decision-making focusing on explanations and examples of utility theory, satisficing,
prospect theory.
• strategies of consumer decision-making focusing on explanations and examples of compensatory,
non-compensatory and partially compensatory strategies including explanations and examples of each.
• decision-making strategies applied to internet shopping focusing on website design, including a study,
e.g. Jedetski et al (2002).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, cultural
differences, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, idiographic versus nomothetic.

2.3.2 Choice heuristics

• heuristics focusing on availability, representativeness, recognition, take-the-best, and anchoring,

including explanations and examples of each.
• point of purchase decisions including multiple unit pricing and suggestive selling, including a study,
e.g. Wansink et al. (1998).
• applying heuristics to decision-making styles, including a study, e.g. del Campo et al. (2016).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual
and situational explanations, experiments, quantitative and qualitative data, objective and subjective data.

2.3.3 Mistakes in decision-making

• thinking fast and thinking slow/system 1 and system 2 including explanations and examples of each,
e.g. Shleifer (2012).
• choice blindness, preferences and defending a choice (exemplified by the following key study).
Key study for choice blindness when tasting food items: Hall et al. (2010).
• consumer memory for advertising including how retroactive and proactive interference affect memory,
including a study, e.g. Burke and Srull (1988).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
determinism versus free-will, experiments, interviews, reliability.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

2.4 The product

2.4.1 Packaging and positioning of a product

• gift-wrapping including beliefs of giver and recipient: why gifts are wrapped, types of wrapping.
• food package design (exemplified by the following key study).
Key study on food package design and taste perceptions: Becker et al. (2011).
• attention and shelf position including planograms, central gaze cascade effect, use of eye-tracking,
including a study, e.g. Atalay et al. (2012).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: reductionism versus holism,
determinism versus free-will, generalisations from findings, objective and subjective data, validity.

2.4.2 Selling the product

• sales techniques focusing on customer-focused, competitor-focused, product-focused techniques

including effect of each on buyer–seller relationship.
• interpersonal influence techniques; focusing on disrupt-then-reframe including the need for cognitive
closure and factors affecting the need for cognitive closure, including a study, e.g. Kardes et al. (2007).
• Cialdini’s six ways to close a sale.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, cultural
differences, determinism versus free-will, idiographic versus nomothetic, field experiments.

2.4.3 Buying the product

• the Engel Kollat Blackwell model of buyer decision-making.

• deciding where to buy including reasons for store choice and demographics such as age and gender,
including a study, e.g. Sinha et al. (2002).
• post-purchase cognitive dissonance including factors that can increase dissonance and ways to reduce
dissonance, including a study, e.g. Nordvall (2014).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: cultural differences, reductionism
versus holism, idiographic versus nomothetic, objective and subjective data, validity.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

2.5 Advertising
2.5.1 Types of advertising and advertising techniques

• the Yale model of communication including five features.

• advertising media including types of advertising media: printed, television, internet and smartphone; use
of eye-tracking and EEG, including a study, e.g. Ciceri et al. (2020).
• Lauterborn’s 4 Cs marketing mix model.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, cultural
differences, objective and subjective data, generalisations from findings, validity.

2.5.2 Advertising–consumer interaction

• advertising and consumer personality including self-monitoring (exemplified by the following Key Study).
 ey study on consumer personality and advertising: Snyder and DeBono (1985), focus on study 3, specifics
K
of methodology for study 1 and study 2 will not be needed.
• how product placement in films affects choice including examples and explanations for choice, such as
mere exposure and reminders, including a study, e.g. Auty and Lewis (2004).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: use of children in research, determinism
versus free-will, self-reports, quantitative and qualitative data, validity.

2.5.3 Brand awareness and recognition

• brand recognition in children including how children acquire an understanding of advertising via logo
recognition, including a study, e.g. Fischer et al. (1991).
• brand awareness, brand image and effective slogans including types and function of slogans; guidelines
for creating effective slogans, e.g. Kohli et al. (2007).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, use of
children in research, determinism versus free-will, experiments, interviews.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Specialist Option 3: Health Psychology

Health psychologists look at the factors that influence behaviours in both health and community settings.
For this option, candidates will look at psychological factors that influence health, and will also examine the
management and assessment of health-related behaviours linked to stress, pain and non-adherence to medical
advice. Candidates should have the opportunity to explore the different issues and debates relevant to the
psychological theories and concepts and the research methods used to investigate health-related behaviour.

For all topics and studies, candidates should be able to:

• describe, evaluate and compare the psychological theories, research, approaches, explanations and
treatments/therapies.
• describe and evaluate research methods and methodological concepts (for AS and A Level)
• consider how the topic area relates to psychological issues and debates (for AS and A Level)
• apply the findings of the study and topic area to the real world.

After each topic there is a list of issues and debates and research methodology which are most relevant to the
topic. This list is not exhaustive and teachers may use other relevant issues and methodology in their teaching.

Key Studies
Savage, R and Armstrong, D (1990), Effect of a general practitioner’s consulting style on patients’ satisfaction: a
controlled study. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 301(6758): 968–70

Yokley, J M and Glenwick, D S (1984), Increasing the immunization of preschool children; an evaluation of
applied community interventions. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 17(3): 313–25

Brudvik, C, Moutte, S D, Baste, V and Morken, T (2016), A comparison of pain assessment by physicians,
parents and children in an outpatient setting. Emergency Medicine Journal, 34(3): 138–44

Bridge, L R, Benson, P, Pietroni, P C and Priest, R G (1988), Relaxation and imagery in the treatment of breast
cancer. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 297: 1169–72

Shoshani, A and Steinmetz, S (2014), Positive Psychology at School: A School-Based Intervention to Promote
Adolescents’ Mental Health and Well-Being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(6): 1289–1311

For each of the key studies, candidates should show knowledge and understanding of:
• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

For each key study candidates should be able to:

• describe and evaluate research methods used in and methodological concepts included in the study (for
AS and A Level)
• describe and evaluate the psychological issues and debates (for AS and A Level) included in the study.

3.1 The patient–practitioner relationship

3.1.1 Practitioner and patient interpersonal skills

• non-verbal communications with a focus on practitioner clothing, including a study, e.g. McKinstry and
Wang (1991).
• verbal communications with a focus on understanding medical terminology, including a study,
e.g. McKinlay (1975).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: idiographic versus nomothetic,
experiments, questionnaires, quantitative data, generalisations from findings.

3.1.2 Patient and practitioner diagnosis and style

• practitioner diagnosis focusing on making a diagnosis (disclosure of information, false positive and false
negative diagnosis) and presenting a diagnosis.
• practitioner style: doctor-centred (directed) and patient-centred (sharing) consultation (exemplified by the
following key study).
Key study for the effect of practitioner style on patient satisfaction: Savage and Armstrong (1990).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual
and situational explanations, cultural differences, determinism versus free-will, validity.

3.1.3 Misusing health services

• delay in seeking treatment:

– reasons for delay, including a study, e.g. Safer et al. (1979)
– alternative explanations for delay, e.g. the health belief model
• Munchausen syndrome versus malingering. Diagnostic features of Munchausen (essential and
supporting features), including a study, e.g. Aleem and Ajarim (1995).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: reductionism versus holism, idiographic
versus nomothetic, interviews, case study, generalisations from findings.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

3.2 Adherence to medical advice

3.2.1 Types of non-adherence and reasons why patients do not adhere

• types of non-adherence (failure to follow treatments and failure to attend appointments) and problems
caused by non-adherence.
• explanations of why patients do not adhere:
– rational non-adherence, including a study, e.g. Laba et al. (2012)
– Health Belief Model.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual
and situational explanations, reductionism versus holism, idiographic versus nomothetic, generalisations
from findings.

3.2.2 Measuring non-adherence

• subjective measures including clinical interviews and semi-structured interviews, including a study,
e.g. Riekert and Drotar (1999).
• objective measures focusing on pill counting and medication dispensers, including a study, e.g. Chung
and Naya (2000).
• biological measures including blood and urine samples.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, idiographic
versus nomothetic, quantitative and qualitative data, validity, reliability.

3.2.3 Improving adherence

• improving adherence in children including a study, e.g. Chaney et al. (2004).

• individual behavioural techniques: contracts, prompts, customising treatment.
• community interventions (exemplified by the following key study).
Key study on improving medical adherence using community interventions: Yokley and Glenwick (1984).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: use of children in research,
experiments, questionnaires, generalisations from findings, validity.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

3.3 Pain
3.3.1 Types and theories of pain

• functions of pain; types of pain: acute and chronic pain. Focus on phantom limb pain and mirror
treatment to include a case study, e.g. MacLachlan et al. (2004).
• theories of pain: specificity theory, gate control theory.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
nature versus nurture, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, case study.

3.3.2 Measuring pain

• subjective measures including clinical interview.

• psychometric measures and visual rating scales:
– McGill pain questionnaire
– visual analogue scale (exemplified by the following key study).
Key Study on comparing pain assessments by doctors, parents and children: Brudvik et al. (2016).
• behavioural/observational measures: UAB pain behaviour scale.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: idiographic versus nomothetic,
quantitative and qualitative data, interviews, observations, psychometrics, generalisations from findings.

3.3.3 Managing and controlling pain

• biological treatment: biochemical.

• psychological treatments: cognitive strategies (attention diversion, non-pain imagery and cognitive
redefinition).
• alternative treatments: acupuncture; stimulation therapy/TENS.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, cultural
differences, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, idiographic versus nomothetic,
objective and subjective data.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

3.4 Stress
3.4.1 Sources of stress

• physiology of stress: the GAS Model and effects of stress on health.

• causes of stress: Holmes and Rahe’s life events, work including a study, e.g. Chandola et al. (2008) and
Friedman and Rosenman’s Type A personality.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, idiographic versus nomothetic, generalisations
from findings.

3.4.2 Measures of stress

• biological measures:
– recording devices for heart rate and brain function (fMRI), including a study, e.g. Wang et al. (2005)
– sample tests for salivary cortisol, including a study, e.g. Evans and Wener (2007).
• psychological measures: self-report questionnaires, including tests of Friedman and Rosenman’s Type A
personality and Holmes and Rahe’s life events questionnaire.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: questionnaires, psychometrics,
subjective and objective data, validity, reliability.

3.4.3 Managing stress

• psychological therapy: biofeedback, including a study, e.g. Budzynski et al. (1969).

• use of imagery to reduce stress (exemplified by the following key study).
Key study on relaxation and imagery in reducing stress during medical treatment: Bridge et al. (1988).
• preventing stress: three phases of stress inoculation training.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual
and situational explanations, determinism versus free-will, generalisations from findings, ethics.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

3.5 Health promotion

3.5.1 Strategies for promoting health

• fear arousal: use of fear to improve health, including a study, e.g. Janis and Feshbach (1953).
• providing information: giving information so people know how to improve their health, including a study,
e.g. Lewin et al. (1992).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
cultural differences, longitudinal studies, objective and subjective data, ethics.

3.5.2 Health promotion in schools and worksites

• schools with a focus on healthy eating, including a study, e.g. Tapper et al. (2003).
• worksites with a focus on health and safety, including a study, e.g. Fox et al. (1987).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: use of children in research,
experiments, longitudinal studies, quantitative and qualitative data, generalisations from findings.

3.5.3 Individual factors in changing health beliefs

• unrealistic optimism: reason for disregarding positive health advice, including a study, e.g. Weinstein
(1980).
• positive psychology: defining positive psychology. Three focuses: pleasant life, good life, meaningful life,
including a study, e.g. Seligman (2004).
• application of positive psychology (exemplified by the following key study).
Key study on using positive psychology in schools to improve mental health: Shoshani and Steinmetz
(2014).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
cultural differences, idiographic versus nomothetic, psychometrics, generalisations from findings.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

Specialist Option 4: Organisational Psychology

Organisational psychology is the study of behaviours within the workplace. Candidates will need to
consider how social, physical and psychological environments affect individual and group behaviour in the
workplace. For this option, candidates will look at aspects of job role, satisfaction, motivation, safety and
leadership. Candidates should have the opportunity to explore the different issues and debates relevant to
the psychological theories and concepts and the research methods used to investigate people working in
organisations and workplaces.

For all topics and studies, candidates should be able to:

• describe, evaluate and compare the psychological theories, research, approaches, and explanations.
• describe and evaluate research methods and methodological concepts (for AS and A Level)
• consider how the topic area relates to psychological issues and debates (for AS and A Level)
• apply the findings of the study and topic area to the real world.

After each topic there is a list of issues and debates and research methodology which are most relevant to the
topic. This list is not exhaustive and teachers may use other relevant issues and methodology in their teaching.

Key Studies
Landry, A T, Zhang, Y, Papachristopoulos, K and Forest, J (2019), Applying Self-Determination Theory to
understand the motivational impact of cash rewards: New evidence from lab experiments. International Journal
of Psychology, 55(2): 487–98

Cuadrado, I, Morales, J F and Recio, P (2008), Women’s access to managerial positions: an experimental study
of leadership styles and gender. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 11(1): 55–65

Claypoole, V L and Szalma, J L (2019), Electronic Performance Monitoring and sustained attention: Social
facilitation for modern applications. Computers in Human Behavior, 94: 25–34

Swat, K (1997), Monitoring of Accidents and Risk Events in Industrial Plants. Journal of Occupational Health,
39(2): 100–04

Giacalone, R A and Rosenfeld, P (1987), Reasons for Employee Sabotage in the Workplace. Journal of
Business and Psychology, 1(4): 367–78

For each of the key studies, candidates should show knowledge and understanding of:
• the context of the study and relationship to other studies
• the main theories/explanations included in the study
• the aim(s) and hypotheses of the study [if stated]
• the design of the study, including all methodology as appropriate, such as the research method(s) used,
sample size and demographics [if known] and sampling technique [if known], procedure, technique for data
collection
• the results, findings and conclusions of the study
• the main discussion points of the study.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

For each key study candidates should be able to:

• describe and evaluate research methods used in and methodological concepts included in the study (for
AS and A Level)
• describe and evaluate the psychological issues and debates (for AS and A Level) included in the study.

4.1 Motivation to work

4.1.1 Need theories

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs including five needs, including a study, e.g. Saeednia (2011).
• McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation including need for achievement, affiliation and power.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual
and situational explanations, cultural differences, determinism versus free-will, validity.

4.1.2 Cognitive theories

• Latham and Locke’s goal-setting theory including goal-setting principles and SMART goals.
• Vroom’s VIE (expectancy) theory.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
cultural differences, reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, idiographic versus nomothetic.

4.1.3 Motivators at work

• extrinsic motivators at work: types of reward systems including pay, bonuses, profit-sharing,
performance-related pay.
• intrinsic motivators at work: non-monetary rewards including praise, respect, recognition, empowerment
and a sense of belonging.
• Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory including competence, autonomy and relatedness (exemplified
by the following key study).
Key study for applying self-determination theory to motivational rewards: Landry et al. (2019), focus on
study 1, specifics of methodology from study 2 will not be needed.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
reductionism versus holism, determinism versus free-will, idiographic versus nomothetic, generalisations
from findings.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

4.2 Leadership and management

4.2.1 Traditional and modern theories of leadership

• universalist theories including great person, charismatic, and transformational leaders.

• behavioural theories including Ohio University and Michigan University behavioural explanations.
• Heifetz’s six principles in meeting adaptive challenges; responsibilities of an adaptive leader.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual
and situational explanations, nature versus nurture, reductionism versus holism, generalisations from
findings.

4.2.2 Leadership style

• Muczyk and Reimann’s four styles of leader behaviour.

• Scouller’s levels of leadership including public, private and personal levels
• Leadership style and gender (exemplified by the following key study).
Key study on leadership style and gender: Cuadrado et al. (2008)

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual
and situational explanations, reductionism versus holism, idiographic versus nomothetic, generalisations
from findings.

4.2.3 Leaders and followers

• Kouzes and Posner’s Leadership Practices Inventory including five practices.

• Kelley’s (1988) followership including definition of followership, two dimensions and five followership
styles.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, cultural
differences, idiographic versus nomothetic, self-reports, psychometrics.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

4.3 Group behaviour in organisations

4.3.1 Group development and decision-making

• stages of group development, e.g. Tuckman and Jensen (2010).

• Belbin’s nine team roles.
• faulty decision-making, explanations and strategies to avoid it:
– groupthink including features with examples
– Forsyth’s cognitive limitations and errors including types and subtypes.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual
and situational explanations, reductionism versus holism, idiographic versus nomothetic, generalisations
from findings.

4.3.2 Individual and group performance

• individual and group performance focusing on social facilitation and social loafing including definitions,
drive theory and evaluation apprehension, social impact theory.
• group performance across cultures focusing on social loafing in individualistic and collectivist cultures,
including a study, e.g. Earley (1993).
• performance monitoring of employee productivity (exemplified by the following key study).
Key study looking at concentration levels when being monitored: Claypoole and Szalma (2019), focus on
experiment 1, specifics of methodology for experiment 2 will not be needed.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, cultural
differences, determinism versus free-will, idiographic versus nomothetic, quantitative and qualitative data.

4.3.3 Conflict at work

• levels of group conflict (intra-individual, inter-individual, intra-group and inter-group). Causes of

organisational and interpersonal group conflict.
• Thomas–Kilmann’s five conflict-handling modes.
• bullying at work; types, phases and causes, including a study, e.g. Einarsen (1999).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual
and situational explanations, cultural differences, reductionism versus holism, idiographic versus nomothetic.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

4.4 Organisational work conditions

4.4.1 Physical work conditions

• impact of physical work conditions on productivity and the Hawthorne effect, e.g. Kompier (2006).
• impact of the design of the work environment focusing on open plan offices, including a study,
e.g. Oldham and Brass (1979).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: determinism versus free-will,
experiments, questionnaires, longitudinal studies, quantitative and qualitative data.

4.4.2 Temporal conditions of work environments

• design of work: shiftwork: rapid rotation and slow rotation, on-call and flexitime including definitions and
examples of each.
• effects of shiftwork on health and accidents, including a study, e.g. Gold et al. (1992).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, determinism
versus free-will, questionnaires, quantitative and qualitative data, validity.

4.4.3 Health and safety

• accidents at work focusing on human errors (errors of omission, commission, sequencing and timing)
and system errors in operator–machine systems (machine controls and displays).
• reducing accidents at work: token economy, including a study, e.g. Fox et al. (1987).
• monitoring accidents (exemplified by the following key study).
Key study on the monitoring of accidents and risk events: Swat (1997).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
idiographic versus nomothetic, longitudinal studies, objective and subjective data, generalisations from
findings.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Subject content

4.5 Satisfaction at work

4.5.1 Theories of job satisfaction

• theories of job satisfaction: Herzberg’s two factor theory including hygiene and motivational factors.
• Hackman and Oldham’s job characteristics theory including job characteristics and psychological states.
• techniques of job design: enrichment, rotation and enlargement, e.g. Belias and Sklikas, (2013).

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, cultural
differences, reductionism versus holism, idiographic versus nomothetic, generalisations from findings.

4.5.2 Measuring job-satisfaction

• job satisfaction rating scales and questionnaires focusing on the job descriptive index (JDI).
• Walton’s quality of working life (QWL) including eight conditions and QWL evaluation scale.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: individual and situational explanations,
quantitative and qualitative data, psychometrics, validity, reliability.

4.5.3 Attitudes to work

• workplace sabotage including methods and reasons for sabotage (exemplified by the following key
study).
Key study reasons for sabotage in the workplace: Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987).
• Blau and Boal’s absenteeism and organisational commitment model including types of absence,
categories of commitment.

Relevant issues and debates and methodology for this topic include: application to everyday life, individual
and situational explanations, reductionism versus holism, idiographic versus nomothetic, generalisations
from findings.

Faculty feedback: ‘Understanding how and why our climate is changing and providing the
knowledge and skills to explore the challenges plays a key role in every student’s education.’
Feedback from: Dr Amy Munro-Faure, Head of Education and Student Engagement of Cambridge Zero

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027.

4 Details of the assessment

For AS Level, candidates take Papers 1 and 2. Both papers must be taken at the same exam series.

For A Level, candidates take Papers 1, 2, 3 and 4. Papers 1 and 2 must be taken at the same exam series, but
Papers 3 and 4 may be taken at a later exam series. Both Papers 3 and 4 must be taken in the same exam
series.

Paper 1 – Approaches, Issues and Debates

Written paper, 1 hour 30 minutes, 60 marks

Candidate answer all questions.

This paper contains two sections:

• Section A: short answer questions
• Section B: extended response questions which may ask for comparison between studies and will require
candidates to evaluate a study(s).

The paper tests candidates’ knowledge of the core studies. Candidates will also be asked questions based on
the four approaches (biological, cognitive, learning and social) and the AS Level issues and debates.

Paper 2 – Research Methods

Written paper, 1 hour 30 minutes, 60 marks

Candidates answer all questions.

This paper contains two sections:

• Section A: short answer questions based on general research methods and research methods relating
directly to a core study and three short answer scenario-based questions.
• Section B: a planning question where candidates plan a study and evaluate some aspects of this plan.

The paper will focus on knowledge and application of research methods and methodological concepts and
how these relate to the core studies.

For the planning question, candidates will apply their knowledge of the research methods and practical issues
and methodological concepts to plan an investigation. Some aspects of the investigation will be provided for
candidates as part of the question and candidates will be required to plan the other aspects of the investigation.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Details of the assessment

Planning studies for Paper 2

Candidates should be able to:

plan studies to include general features: procedure of the study

how the plan makes the study valid
how the plan makes the study reliable
types of data

plan studies using specific research methods to include required features:

experiments independent variable

dependent variable
controls / standardisation
choice of experimental design
    additionally for field experiments: location

self-reports question format (open and closed questions)

examples of questions
question scoring / interpretation
   additionally, for questionnaires: technique (paper and pencil, online)
   additionally, for interviews: format (structured, unstructured, semi-structured)
technique (face-to-face, telephone)

case studies details about the participant / unit

content of information collected
two or more techniques for data collection
analysis / interpretation / triangulation

observational studies overt / covert

participant / non-participant
naturalistic / controlled
structured (behavioural categories) / unstructured

correlational studies two co-variables

measure of variable 1
measure of variable 2
nature of the relationship / scatter graph

longitudinal studies including experiments tests / tasks

with a longitudinal design scoring
frequency / interval
re-contacting of participants (for repeated testing)
controls / standardisation

evaluate the planned study in terms of: practical / methodological issues

validity
reliability

Candidates will not be expected to include aims or hypotheses in their plan.

Candidates will not be expected to evaluate issues relating to the sample/generalisability or ethics of their plan.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Details of the assessment

Paper 3 – Specialist Options: Approaches, Issues and Debates

Written paper, 1 hour 30 minutes, 60 marks

This paper contains four specialist options. Candidates answer questions from the two options they have
studied.

Candidates answer all the questions from these two specialist options.

There are four questions for each specialist option. Each specialist option will consist of:
• Short answer questions. There will be three questions consisting of structured short answer questions
worth a total of 14 marks.
• Structured essay question, divided into two parts. There are 6 marks for the part (a) ‘describe’ question and
10 marks for the part (b) ‘evaluate’ question. The question will be based on a different topic area from those
tested in the short answer questions.

Questions will require candidates to consider the subject content of the specialist options and approaches,
issues and debates. The questions will be based on three topics or sub-topics within the studied specialist
options. The topic areas for each specialist option will be different to the topic areas assessed in Paper 4.

Paper 4 – Specialist Options: Application and Research Methods

Written paper, 1 hour 30 minutes, 60 marks

This paper contains two sections.

Section A – candidates answer questions on the two specialist options they have studied.

There will be two structured questions on each of the specialist options, and candidates will answer all parts of
the questions from the two specialist options they have studied.

Questions will require candidates to consider the subject content and Key Studies of the specialist options,
research methods and methodological concepts. The questions are based on two topics or sub-topics within
the studied specialist options. The topic areas for each specialist option will be different to the topic areas
assessed in Paper 3.

Section B – candidates answer one planning question from a choice of four (one for each specialist option). In
the planning question candidates must plan a study (10 marks) and answer structured questions to evaluate the
plan (14 marks).

For the planning question, candidates will apply their knowledge of research methods and practical issues
and methodological concepts to plan an investigation. Candidates will be required to specify both the general
features which will apply to all research methods and the specific features which apply to the research
method used.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Details of the assessment

Planning studies for Paper 4

Candidates should be able to:

plan studies to include a range of different aspects according to the research method being used

general features (apply to all methods) aim(s) and hypotheses

procedure of the study
sample and sampling technique
ethics
how the plan makes the study valid
how the plan makes the study reliable
types of data, analysis of data, use of descriptive statistics

plan studies using specific features in sufficient detail for replication, to include but not be limited to:

experiments type of experiment

independent variable
dependent variable
controls / standardisation
choice of experimental design
counterbalancing, random allocation (where applicable)
    additionally for field experiments: location

self-reports question format (open and closed questions)

examples of questions
question scoring / interpretation
   additionally, for questionnaires: technique (paper and pencil, online, postal)
   aditionally, for interviews: format (structured, unstructured, semi-structured)
technique (face-to-face, telephone)

case studies details about the participant / unit

content of information collected
two or more techniques for data collection
analysis / interpretation / triangulation

observational studies overt / covert

participant / non-participant
naturalistic / controlled
structured (behavioural categories) / unstructured
number of observers

correlational studies two co-variables

measure of variable 1
measure of variable 2
nature of the relationship / scatter graph

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Details of the assessment

longitudinal studies including experiments tests / tasks

with a longitudinal design scoring
frequency / interval
re-contacting of participants (for repeated testing)
controls / standardisation

evaluate all aspects of the planned study.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. Details of the assessment

Command words
Command words and their meanings help candidates know what is expected from them in the exams. The
table below includes command words used in the assessment for this syllabus. The use of the command word
will relate to the subject context.

Command word What it means

Analyse examine in detail to show meaning, identify elements and the relationship between
them

Compare identify/comment on similarities and/or differences

Define give precise meaning

Describe state the points of a topic / give characteristics and main features

Evaluate judge or calculate the quality, importance, amount, or value of something

Explain set out purposes or reasons / make the relationships between things clear / say why
and/or how and support with relevant evidence

Give produce an answer from a given source or recall/memory

Identify name/select/recognise

Outline set out the main points

State express in clear terms

Suggest apply knowledge and understanding to situations where there are a range of valid
responses in order to make proposals / put forward considerations

Phrases such as ‘Plan an experiment / investigation / study to ...’ may also be seen in the assessment for this
syllabus.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027.

5 What else you need to know

This section is an overview of other information you need to know about this syllabus. It will help to share the
administrative information with your exams officer so they know when you will need their support. Find more
information about our administrative processes at www.cambridgeinternational.org/eoguide

Before you start

Previous study
We do not expect learners starting this course to have previously studied Psychology.

Guided learning hours

We design Cambridge International AS & A Level syllabuses to require about 180 guided learning hours for
each Cambridge International AS Level and about 360 guided learning hours for a Cambridge International
A Level. The number of hours a learner needs to achieve the qualification may vary according to each school
and the learners’ previous experience of the subject.

Availability and timetables

All Cambridge schools are allocated to one of six administrative zones. Each zone has a specific timetable.
Find your administrative zone at www.cambridgeinternational.org/adminzone

You can view the timetable for your administrative zone at www.cambridgeinternational.org/timetables

You can enter candidates in the June and November exam series. If your school is in India, you can also enter
your candidates in the March exam series.

Check you are using the syllabus for the year the candidate is taking the exam.

Private candidates can enter for this syllabus. For more information, please refer to the Cambridge Guide to
Making Entries.

Combining with other syllabuses

Candidates can take this syllabus alongside other syllabuses in a single exam series. The only exceptions are:
• syllabuses with the same title at the same level.

Group awards: Cambridge AICE Diploma

Cambridge AICE Diploma (Advanced International Certificate of Education) is a group award for Cambridge
International AS & A Level. It encourages schools to offer a broad and balanced curriculum by recognising the
achievements of learners who pass exams in a range of different subjects.

Learn more about Cambridge AICE Diploma at www.cambridgeinternational.org/aice

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. What else you need to know

Making entries
Exams officers are responsible for submitting entries. We encourage them to work closely with you to make
sure they enter the right number of candidates for the right combination of syllabus components. Entry option
codes and instructions for submitting entries are in the Cambridge Guide to Making Entries. Your exams officer
has access to this guide.

Exam administration
To keep our exams secure, we produce question papers for different areas of the world, known as
administrative zones. We allocate all Cambridge schools to an administrative zone determined by their location.
Each zone has a specific timetable.

Some of our syllabuses offer candidates different assessment options. An entry option code is used to identify
the components the candidate will take relevant to the administrative zone and the available assessment
options.

Support for exams officers

We know how important exams officers are to the successful running of exams. We provide them with the
support they need to make entries on time. Your exams officer will find this support, and guidance for all other
phases of the Cambridge Exams Cycle, at www.cambridgeinternational.org/eoguide

Retakes and carrying forward marks

Candidates can retake Cambridge International AS Level and Cambridge International A Level as many times
as they want to. Information on retake entries is at www.cambridgeinternational.org/retakes

Candidates can carry forward their Cambridge International AS Level marks from one series to complete their
Cambridge International A Level in a following series. The rules, time limits and regulations for carry-forward
entries can be found in the Cambridge Handbook for the relevant year of assessment and the Carry-forward
regulations supplement at www.cambridgeinternational.org/eoguide

To confirm what entry options are available for this syllabus, refer to the Cambridge Guide to Making Entries for
the relevant series.

Language
This syllabus and the related assessment materials are available in English only.

Accessibility and equality

Syllabus and assessment design
At Cambridge we recognise that our candidates have highly diverse socio-economic, cultural and linguistic
backgrounds, and may also have a variety of protected characteristics. Protected characteristics include
special educational needs and disability (SEND), religion and belief, and characteristics related to gender
and identity.

We follow accessible design principles to make our syllabuses and assessment materials as accessible and
inclusive as possible. We review language accessibility, visual resources, question layout and the contexts
used in questions. Using this approach means that we give all candidates the fairest possible opportunity to
demonstrate their knowledge, skills and understanding.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. What else you need to know

Access arrangements
Our design principles aim to make sure our assessment materials are accessible for all candidates. To further
minimise barriers faced by candidates with SEND, illness or injury, we offer a range of access arrangements
and modified papers. This is the principal way in which we comply with our duty to make ‘reasonable
adjustments’, as guided by the UK Equality Act 2010.

Important:
Requested access arrangements should be based on evidence of the candidate’s barrier to taking an
assessment and should also reflect their normal way of working. This is explained in section 1.3 of the
Cambridge Handbook www.cambridgeinternational.org/eoguide
• For Cambridge to approve an access arrangement, we need to agree that it constitutes a reasonable
adjustment and does not affect the security or integrity of the assessment.
• Details of our standard access arrangements and modified question papers are available in section 1.3 of
the Cambridge Handbook www.cambridgeinternational.org/eoguide
• Centres are expected to check the availability of access arrangements and modified question papers at
the start of the course. All applications should be made by the deadlines published in section 1.3 of the
Cambridge Handbook www.cambridgeinternational.org/eoguide
• Contact us at the start of the course to find out if we can approve an access arrangement that is not
included in the list of standard access arrangements.
• Candidates who cannot access parts of the assessment may be able to receive an award based on the
parts they have completed.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. What else you need to know

After the exam

Grading and reporting
Grades a, b, c, d or e indicate the standard a candidate achieved at Cambridge International AS Level. ‘a’ is the
highest and ‘e’ is the lowest grade.

Grades A*, A, B, C, D or E indicate the standard a candidate achieved at Cambridge International A Level. A* is
the highest and E is the lowest grade.

‘Ungraded’ means that the candidate’s performance did not meet the standard required for the lowest grade
(E or e). ‘Ungraded’ is reported on the statement of results but not on the certificate. In specific circumstances
your candidates may see one of the following letters on their statement of results:
• Q (PENDING)
• X (NO RESULT).
These letters do not appear on the certificate.

If a candidate takes a Cambridge International A Level and fails to achieve grade E or higher, a Cambridge
International AS Level grade will be awarded if both of the following apply:
• the components taken for the Cambridge International A Level by the candidate in that series included all
the components making up a Cambridge International AS Level
• the candidate’s performance on the AS Level components was sufficient to merit the award of a Cambridge
International AS Level grade.

On the statement of results, Cambridge International AS & A Levels are shown as General Certificates of
Education Advanced Subsidiary Level and Advanced Level, GCE Advanced Subsidiary Level (GCE AS Level)
and GCE Advanced Level (GCE A Level).

On the certificates, Cambridge International AS & A Levels are shown as General Certificate of Education.

School feedback: ‘Cambridge International A Levels are the ‘gold standard’ qualification. They
are based on rigorous, academic syllabuses that are accessible to students from a wide range
of abilities yet have the capacity to stretch our most able.’
Feedback from: Director of Studies, Auckland Grammar School, New Zealand

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. What else you need to know

How students, teachers and higher education can use the grades
Cambridge International A Level
Assessment at Cambridge International A Level has two purposes:
1 to measure learning and achievement
The assessment confirms achievement and performance in relation to the knowledge, understanding and
skills specified in the syllabus.
2 to show likely future success
The outcomes help predict which students are well prepared for a particular course or career and/or which
students are more likely to be successful.
The outcomes help students choose the most suitable course or career

Cambridge International AS Level

Assessment at Cambridge International AS Level has two purposes:
1 to measure learning and achievement
The assessment confirms achievement and performance in relation to the knowledge, understanding and
skills specified in the syllabus.
2 to show likely future success
The outcomes help predict which students are well prepared for a particular course or career and/or which
students are more likely to be successful.
The outcomes help students choose the most suitable course or career
The outcomes help decide whether students part way through a Cambridge International A Level course
are making enough progress to continue
The outcomes guide teaching and learning in the next stages of the Cambridge International A Level
course.

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 Cambridge International AS & A Level Psychology 9990 syllabus for 2027. What else you need to know

Changes to this syllabus for 2027

The syllabus has been updated. This is version 1, published September 2024.

You must read the whole syllabus before planning your teaching programme. We review our
syllabuses regularly to make sure they continue to meet the needs of our schools. In updating this syllabus, we
have made it easier for teachers and students to understand, keeping the familiar features that teachers and
schools value.

There are no significant changes which affect teaching.

Any textbooks endorsed to support the syllabus for examination from 2024 are still suitable for
use with this syllabus.

Syllabuses and specimen materials represent the final authority on the content and structure of all of our
assessments.

With a Customer Services team available 24 hours a day, 6 days a week, and dedicated regional teams
supporting schools in 160 countries, we understand your local context and are here to guide you so you can
provide your learners with everything they need to prepare for Cambridge International AS & A Level.

Quality management
We are committed to providing exceptional quality. In line with this commitment, our quality management
system for the provision of international education programmes and qualifications
for students aged 5 to 19 is independently certified as meeting the internationally recognised standard,
ISO 9001:2015. Learn more at www.cambridgeinternational.org/about-us/our-standards/

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School feedback: ‘While studying Cambridge IGCSE and Cambridge International A Levels, students
broaden their horizons through a global perspective and develop a lasting passion for learning.’
Feedback from: Zhai Xiaoning, Deputy Principal, The High School Affiliated to Renmin University of China

We are committed to making our documents accessible in accordance with the WCAG 2.1 Standard. We are always looking to improve
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us and supply your name, email address and requirements and we will respond within 15 working days.

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