1. Define the term DBMS. What are the advantages of DBMS over the file-based approach?

Definition of DBMS:A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that provides an efficient and
systematic way to store, manage, and retrieve data from databases. It allows users to interact with
databases, ensuring the data is well-organized and easily accessible.Advantages of DBMS over File-Based
Approach:Control of Data Redundancy and Inconsistency: In a file-based system, data duplication can
occur, leading to redundancy and possible inconsistencies. DBMS helps to minimize data duplication and
ensures consistent data throughout the system.Improved Data Integrity and Security: A DBMS can
enforce data integrity constraints and security mechanisms, ensuring that only authorized users have
access to the data and that it remains accurate and reliable.Data Independence: The DBMS separates
data structure from data access, allowing changes in data storage or formats without affecting
application programs that use the data. This is difficult to achieve in file-based systems.Efficient Data
Access and Querying: DBMS supports powerful query languages like SQL, making data retrieval faster
and more flexible compared to manual methods in a file system.

2. Describe the three-schema architecture and explain the need for mapping between schema levels.

Three-Schema Architecture:Internal Schema: This level describes how data is physically stored in the
database, including the data structures and storage methods used at the lowest level.Conceptual
Schema: This level represents the entire database structure, describing the relationships and
organization of data. It provides a unified view of the data for the organization.External Schema: This
level defines how individual users or user groups interact with the database. It provides different user-
specific views of the data to cater to specific application needs.Need for Mapping Between Schema
Levels:Mapping is required to maintain the integrity and consistency of data as it moves between
different levels:External-Conceptual Mapping: This ensures that changes in user views (external schema)
do not affect the overall database design (conceptual schema).Conceptual-Internal Mapping: This
ensures that changes in the physical storage of data (internal schema) do not affect the overall logical
structure of the database (conceptual schema).

3. What is the purpose of an E-R diagram? Explain the different E-R modeling styles and the symbols
used in each style.

Purpose of E-R Diagram:An Entity-Relationship (E-R) Diagram is a visual representation of the data and
the relationships between entities in a database. It provides a clear and organized way to model the
database structure, helping in the design and planning phase of a database system.E-R Modeling
Styles:Chen’s Notation: This traditional style uses rectangles for entities, diamonds for relationships, and
ovals for attributes. It is useful for detailed, descriptive database designs.Crow’s Foot Notation: A more
compact and widely-used style in database design tools, this notation represents relationships using lines
and symbols that resemble a crow's foot, making it easier to understand and implement large database
designs.Symbols Used in E-R Diagrams:Entity: Represented by rectangles, entities denote real-world
objects like "Customer" or "Product."Relationship: Represented by diamonds, relationships show how
entities are related, such as "buys" or "owns."Attribute: Represented by ovals, attributes define
properties of entities, such as "Customer Name" or "Order Date."Primary Key: Underlined attributes
indicate the primary key, which uniquely identifies an entity in the database.

1. What do you mean by constraints in DBMS?

Constraints in DBMS:Constraints are rules applied to the database schema to ensure the accuracy,
consistency, and integrity of data. They enforce certain conditions on data to prevent invalid or incorrect
entries. Examples include Primary Key constraints, Foreign Key constraints, Unique constraints, Not Null
constraints, and Check constraints.

Is it necessary to apply constraints while designing the database schema? Justify:Yes, applying
constraints is essential when designing a database schema because:Data Integrity: Constraints ensure
that only valid data is entered, preventing errors like duplicate or null values where not
allowed.Consistency: They help maintain consistency between related tables (e.g., Foreign Key
constraints).Reliability: Constraints enforce the business rules, making the data more reliable for
decision-making.Security: Certain constraints (like CHECK) can restrict data inputs to only allowable
values, preventing potential misuse or data corruption.

2. What are the three levels of data abstraction? Explain with the help of a diagram. Also, explain the
concept of data independence.

Three Levels of Data Abstraction:Physical Level: This is the lowest level, which describes how the data is
actually stored in the database (e.g., indexes, file structures).Conceptual Level: This level describes what
data is stored in the database and the relationships among them. It provides a unified view of the data,
independent of how it is stored.External Level: This is the highest level, which presents data to end users
in different ways (i.e., different views for different users).Data Independence:Logical Data Independence:
Changes to the conceptual schema should not affect external schemas or applications.Physical Data
Independence: Changes to the internal schema should not affect the conceptual schema or the external
views.

3. (i) What are weak and strong entity sets? How are they represented in an ER diagram?

Strong Entity Set:A strong entity set can exist independently without relying on other entities. It has a
primary key that uniquely identifies each entity in the set. In an ER diagram, a strong entity set is
represented by a rectangle.Weak Entity Set:A weak entity set cannot exist independently and depends
on a strong entity for its existence. It does not have a primary key of its own but is identified by a
combination of its own attributes and a foreign key from a related strong entity. In an ER diagram, a
weak entity set is represented by a double rectangle, and its relationship with the strong entity is
represented by a double diamond.

3. (ii) What is total and partial participation? What is their role in a relationship?

Total Participation:In a relationship, total participation means that every entity in the entity set must
participate in the relationship. For example, if every student must enroll in at least one course, then
there is total participation of the "Student" entity in the "Enrolls" relationship. In an ER diagram, total
participation is represented by a double line connecting the entity to the relationship.Partial
Participation:In contrast, partial participation means that not all entities are required to participate in the
relationship. For example, not every teacher needs to supervise a research project. In an ER diagram,
partial participation is represented by a single line connecting the entity to the relationship.

4. Explain various types of keys. Explain each of them with suitable examples and their syntax.

Types of Keys:Primary Key: A column or set of columns that uniquely identifies each record in a table. It
cannot have NULL values.Example: CREATE TABLE Student (ID INT PRIMARY KEY, Name
VARCHAR(50));Foreign Key: A column or set of columns that establish a relationship between two tables.
It references the primary key of another table.Example: CREATE TABLE Enrollment (StudentID INT,
CourseID INT, FOREIGN KEY (StudentID) REFERENCES Student(ID));Unique Key: Ensures all values in a
column are unique but allows one NULL value. Similar to the primary key, but multiple unique keys can
exist in a table.Example: CREATE TABLE Employee (EmpID INT UNIQUE, EmpName
VARCHAR(50));Candidate Key: Any column or set of columns that could be a primary key. The primary
key is selected from the candidate keys.Example: Both "Email" and "ID" in a "User" table could be
candidate keys, but only one is chosen as the primary key.Composite Key: A combination of two or more
columns used to create a unique identifier for rows in a table.Example: CREATE TABLE Orders (OrderID
INT, ProductID INT, PRIMARY KEY (OrderID, ProductID));

1. Compare and contrast file systems with database systems in detail.

File Systems:Data Storage: In file systems, data is stored in files within directories. These files are often
unstructured or semi-structured.Data Redundancy and Inconsistency: Data is often duplicated across
multiple files, which can lead to inconsistencies.Data Access: Accessing data in a file system requires
manual coding or basic operating system commands. Searching can be slow as there is no optimized
querying mechanism.Concurrency Control: Most file systems lack proper concurrency control.
Simultaneous access by multiple users can lead to issues such as data corruption.

Database Systems:Data Storage: Data is stored in structured formats (tables) using schemas. DBMS
manages the data and allows for complex relationships between data entities.Data Redundancy and
Consistency: DBMS systems minimize redundancy by allowing relationships (like foreign keys), ensuring
data consistency.Data Access: DBMS uses query languages like SQL, which allow efficient and complex
data retrieval with less effort.Concurrency Control: DBMS provides better concurrency control through
mechanisms such as locking, ensuring consistent access to data even when multiple users are accessing
the system simultaneously.

2. Analyze the distinct classifications of Database Management Systems (DBMS).

Classifications of DBMS:Relational DBMS (RDBMS): Stores data in tables with rows and columns.
Relationships are established using foreign keys. Examples include MySQL, PostgreSQL, and
Oracle.Hierarchical DBMS: Organizes data in a tree-like structure where each child node has only one
parent. It is used in specialized applications like banking systems. Example: IBM Information
Management System (IMS).Network DBMS: Similar to the hierarchical model but allows many-to-many
relationships through a graph-like structure. Example: Integrated Data Store (IDS).Object-Oriented DBMS
(OODBMS): Stores data in the form of objects, as used in object-oriented programming. Example: db4o,
ObjectDB.

Components of DBMS:Database Engine: Manages data storage, access, and modification.Database

Schema: The blueprint of the database that defines the tables, fields, and relationships.Query Processor:
Interprets and executes SQL queries.Transaction Management: Ensures that all database operations are
completed successfully or rolled back in case of failure.Storage Manager: Manages how data is stored on
physical devices.Authorization Manager: Ensures that only authorized users can access certain parts of
the database.Popular DBMS:MySQL,Oracle DB

4. What is Data Modelling? What is its role in database design? Explain types of Modelling

Data Modelling:Data modeling is the process of creating a data structure to represent real-world
information in a database. It serves as a blueprint for building the actual database, ensuring that all data
elements are represented and correctly related to each other.

Role in Database Design:Structure Definition: Data modeling defines how the data will be organized and
how different data entities will be related.Efficiency: A well-designed model allows for efficient data
storage, access, and retrieval.Minimizes Redundancy: Through normalization and relationship mapping,
data modeling reduces duplication of data.

Types of Data Modelling:Conceptual Data Model: A high-level model that captures the overall structure
of the system without focusing on implementation details. Typically represented using ER
diagrams.Logical Data Model: A more detailed model that includes specific details about the structure
and relationships, but still independent of physical storage.Physical Data Model: Focuses on how data
will be stored physically on hardware. It includes information on indexes, partitions, and storage
structures.

Why Use E-R Model for Data Modelling?

The Entity-Relationship (E-R) model is widely used in conceptual data modeling because it provides a
clear and visual representation of the relationships between different entities. It simplifies understanding
for database designers and developers.Example: In a library system, entities like "Books," "Members,"
and "Loans" can be modeled in an ER diagram to define how books are issued to members and when
they need to be returned.

Specialization, Generalization, and Aggregation

Specialization is a top-down approach where a general entity is divided into sub-entities based on
distinguishing characteristics.Example:Vehicle can be specialized into Car and Truck.Car: Attributes like
"number of doors."Truck: Attributes like "load capacity."In ER diagrams, it’s shown with a triangle labeled
"ISA," linking the general entity to specialized sub-entities.Types:Disjoint: An instance can belong to only
one subclass (e.g., either a car or a truck).Overlapping: An instance can belong to multiple subclasses
(e.g., both employee and student).

Generalization is a bottom-up approach where multiple entities are combined into a general entity
based on shared attributes.Example:Teacher and Student can be generalized into Person, sharing
common attributes like "Name" and "Address."Generalization is the reverse of specialization and is also
depicted with an "ISA" triangle in ER diagrams.

Aggregation treats a relationship as an entity, useful when a relationship itself has attributes or
participates in another relationship.Example:Employee works on a Project (relationship: Works_On), and
a Department oversees that project. Aggregation allows treating the relationship Works_On as a higher-
level entity.In ER diagrams, aggregation is shown by enclosing the relationship in a box and connecting it
to another entity.

Data Independence refers to the capability of modifying the database schema at one level without
affecting the schema at the next higher level, allowing changes in data structure without impacting
application programs. It is classified into two types: Logical and Physical data independence.

Logical data independence refers to the ability to change the logical schema (such as altering tables or
attributes) without modifying the external schema (the way users view the data) or the applications that
interact with the database. For instance, adding a new column to a table or renaming an attribute should
not require changes in the application layer or the way data is presented to users. However, logical data
independence is harder to achieve because changes to the logical structure often affect the data’s view.

Physical data independence refers to the ability to change the physical storage of data (such as file
structures or indexing methods) without altering the logical schema or affecting how applications access
the data. For example, reorganizing storage techniques or changing indexing methods can be done
without impacting the way data is structured logically or how it is accessed. Physical data independence
is easier to achieve and allows for performance optimizations without needing to modify the logical view
of the data.