Part #3

GEOMETRIC MODELLING

Oct., 2022
1
 Part #3-Outline
• Introduction • Representation of curves
• Requirements of Geometric - Hermite curve
Modelling - Bezier curve-
• Geometric Models - B-spline curves-
• Geometric Construction rational curves-
Methods • Techniques for surface
• Wireframe Modelling modeling
• Solid-Representation - Surface patch
Methods - Coons and bicubic
• Solid modeling techniques patches
- CSG, and - Bezier and B-spline
- B-rep surfaces.
 Objectives:
➢ Understand the various requirements for the information that is
generated during the geometric modelling stage
➢ Study various types of geometric models possible and their applications
➢ Understand the methods of representation of wireframe, surface, and
solid modelling systems
➢ Develop various methodologies used for geometric construction such as
sweep, surface models, solid models, etc.
➢ Recognise the various types of surfaces and their applications as used in
geometric modelling
➢ Understand the solid construction methods including B-rep and CSG
methods
➢ Understand the parametric representation of curves.
 Geometric Modeling
❑ Geometric modeling is as important to CAD as governing equilibrium
equations to classical engineering fields as mechanics and thermal fluids.
❑ What does geometric modelling mean? What is it expected to provide?
❑ Primarily, geometric models are used for representation of products to
realize abstracted ideas in designer’s mind and to use for evaluation
purposes.
❑ The functions that are expected of geometric modelling are:
▪ Geometric (3D) models are easier to interpret.
▪ Simulation under real-life conditions.
▪ Less expensive than building a physical model.
▪ 3 D models can be used to perform finite element analysis (stress,
deflection, thermal)
▪ 3D models can be used directly in manufacturing, Computer
Numerical Control (CNC), bill of materials.
▪ Can be used for presentations and marketing.
 Geometric Modeling
The Role of Geometric Modeling in a CAD
System
General Requirement
Comments on Geometric Modeling
 Types of CAD Models
❑ Objects and geometric models can be classified into three
types from a geometric construction point of view:
1) 2½ D:
✓ An extrusion has a constant cross section and a thickness in a
direction perpendicular to the plane of cross section:;
✓ An axisymmetric object has a constant cross section that is revolved
about an axis of revolution through an angle 0 <   360o,and
✓ A composite 2½ D object is a combination of multiple 2½ D
objects
2) 3D: that do not have any geometric uniformity in any
direction
3) Combination of both: that has geometric uniformity and non-
uniformity in different directions
 Types of CAD Models
❑ CAD models can be classified into four types from a
construction point of view:
▪ Extrusion: This is a part with constant cross section
along a given axis, with a uniform thickness along the
axis
▪ Revolve: This is an axisymmetric part with a constant
cross section through an angle of revolution about a
given axis of revolution
▪ Composite: This combines both extrusion and
revolves
▪ Free form: This has a shape that does not exhibit any
uniform shape (example: Computer mouse, Auto body)
 Types of CAD Models

Uniform thickness models Axisymmetric model Composite model

2½D
Non-uniform cross
section
Non-uniform thickness
More than one sketch in
different sketch plane

3D
 Planning Part Creation
Part clue How to use in part creation on CAD system
Part type • Extrusion: create a sketch and extrude it
• Revolve: create a sketch and revolve it
• Composite: use a combination of extrusions and/or revolves
• Free form: use lofts, sweeps, surfaces, etc.

Part symmetry • Split the part into two halves at the symmetry plane, construct one half and mirror it about the symmetry
plane to finish the creation of the CAD model
Part patterns If they exist, e.g. holes in a flange or phone buttons, use CAD patterns to create them

Designated points Make use of end, mid, and/or intersection points of entities during construction to avoid unnecessary
calculations. SolidWorks snaps to these points when you move the mouse close to them, or hover the mouse
over them, during construction

Geometric These include parallelism, concentricity etc. SolidWorks has a library of them
constraints
Relations These include proportions such as D1 = 2D2. SolidWorks allows you to create your own relations

Center planes for When you break the part into features to begin construction, always build features off center, i.e. use mid
features planes. When you extrude a sketch, extrude it on both sides of the sketch plane. This strategy is good for
mirror; use the sketch plane to mirror (see Chapter 1 tutorials). It also makes changes and part evolution easy

Miscellaneous • Avoid measuring from corners; measure form mid planes

• If you do not have dimensions, sketch freely
• Use “Trim Entities” to clean up construction and avoid calculations
• Use transformations (move, rotate, copy, scale, offset) to speed up construction
 Part Creation Planning
(Example)
• What is the best modeling plan to use to create the CAD model
shown below
 Geometric Modeling Objects:
# The model of an engineering object consists of geometry, topology
and auxiliary information.

# Geometry includes points, lines, circles, planes, cylinders and

other surfaces. It defines the basic shape characteristics.
# Topology represents the
relationships of the geometry of
an object.
# In addition to its shape, an
engineering object also possesses
some other attributes:
dimensions, tolerances, and
surface finish.
 Cont’d…

❑ Many properties of products have to be modeled, including form, dimension,

tolerance and structure.
❑ In all of these areas geometry, images and spatial manipulation are very
important. For this reason, CAD is founded on computational geometry and
computer graphics.
 Part Topology (Anatomy)
◼A Solid Model is a geometric model of a part and represents
most complete definition of a part
◼A Solid Model is also known as a body (B)
◼A Solid Model Consists of the following:
◼Faces (F): It is a surface that may be planar or non-planar
◼Edges (E): It is a curve that may be a line
◼Loops (L): It a set of contiguous edges on a face
◼Vertices (V): It is a point (Corner)
◼Genus (G): It is a hole in a solid
 Part Topology
• The description of a model in terms of F, E, V, L, G is known as
model topology
• The topology of a valid solid model must satisfy Euler equation
• F-E+V-L = 2(B-G)
• The figure shown here has the following topology:
F=6, E=12,V=8, L=8, B=1, G=4
• Hence this model is a valid model
• CAD/CAM systems create valid model
 Parametric Modeling
• CAD/CAM systems use parameters to define a model instead of
specific explicit dimensions
• In this type of modelling, often called parametric modelling or
constraint-based modelling, most of the time the modelling starts
with a sketch in 2D plane and then is swept along a specified
direction, thereby producing the desired component.
• The figure below shows the difference between parameters and
dimensions
 Benefits of Parametric Modeling
• Parametric modeling offers three benefits
• Sketching freely on a plane
• Ability to create a family of parts in which all parts
have identical shapes with different dimensions
• Ability to create relations between parameters to
control the geometry of the sketch
• Gives the designer incredible flexibility and power
during conceptual design stage without worrying about
the dimensions
 Form Features Modeling
• A feature is a geometric shape specified by a parameter
set which has special meaning for design or
manufacturing engineers.
• Features represent a collection of entities in an
intelligent form (like ‘hole’, ‘slot’, ‘thread’, ‘groove’,
etc.) and hence provide information at a higher
conceptual level.
• The use of such groups of geometry coupled with the
necessary information needed for other applications
such as process-planning functions is seen as a
practical means of linking the design and
manufacturing.
 Defining the Model:

Methods of defining elements in interactive computer graphics

1. Points

 Methods of defining points in computer graphics include:

1) Pointing to the location on the screen by means of cursor control.

2) Entering the coordinates via the alphanumeric keyboard.

3) The intersection of two lines.

2. Lines
Cont’d…
Methods of defining lines include:
1) Using two previously defined points.
2) Using one point and specifying the angle of
the line with the horizontal.
3) Using a point and making the line either
normal or tangent to a curve.
4) Using a point and making the line either
parallel or perpendicular to another line.
5) Making the line tangent to two curves.
6) Making the line tangent to a curve and
parallel or perpendicular to a line.
Lines
3. Arcs, Circles & Curves
Cont’d…
Methods of defining arcs and circles
include:
1) Specifying the center and the
radius.
2) Specifying the center and a point
on the circle.
3) Making the curve pass through
three previously defined points.
4) Making the curve tangent to two
lines.
5) Specifying the radius and making
the curve tangent to two lines or
curves.
Circles
Arcs
4. Surface Modeling

 A surface is a 2D space in an object that has breadth and width much

like a piece of cloth.

 A surface has two degrees of freedom. This means that a point on

surface can be moved in 2 independent directions.

 The x, y coordinates of any point on the surface are determined by

these free variables or parameters( i.e. u & v).
 Cont’d…
> Surface is controlled by series of control points and boundaries.

> Classification of surfaces:

1) Planar surfaces: a flat 2D surface.

2) Curved surfaces:

> Single curved surfaces: It s a simple curved surface obtained by

rotating straight lines around an axis

Ex: Cylindrical, conical, pyramid surfaces, prisms

> Conics: are double curved surfaces: They are complex surfaces
generated by complex curved lines/surfaces.

Ex: Spherical, Torous, Ellipsoid, Parabaloid, Fuselage, Automobiles, etc

 Techniques in Geometric
Modeling
 The various methods for representing the solids are:

1) Boundary representation method (B-rep)

2) Constructive solid geometry (CSG and C-rep)

3) Sweep representation

4) Analytical solid modeling (ASM).

 Boundary Representation
Method (B-rep)
> In surface/solid modeling and computer-aided design, boundary
representation often abbreviated as B-rep or BREP - is a method for
representing shapes using the limits.

> A solid is represented as a collection of connected surface elements,

the boundary between solid and non-solid.

> Boundary representation models are composed of two parts:

Topology and

Geometry (surfaces, curves and points).

 Cont’d…
The main topological items/ primitives of B-rep are:
Vertex (V) : It is a unique point (an ordered triplet) in space.

Edge (E): It is finite, non-self intersecting, directed space curve bounded by

two vertices that are not necessarily distinct.

Face (F): It is defined as a finite connected, non-self-intersecting, region of

a closed oriented surface bounded by one or more loops

Loop (L): It is an ordered alternating sequence of vertices and edges.

Body/Shell(B) : It is a set of faces that bound a single connected closed

volume.
 Cont’d…
> A minimum body is a point; topologically this body has one face, one
vertex, and no edges.

> Geometry:
i. Open polyhedral objects
 Cont’d…
ii. Curved Objects
Modeling Surfaces:
Ex1. Creating Extruded Surfaces
Ex. 2 - Creating Revolved Surfaces
 Ex.3 - Creating Swept surfaces
You can create a swept surface by sweeping out a profile in planes
normal to a spine curve while taking other user-defined parameters
(such as guide curves and reference elements) into account.
1. Click the Sweep icon
2. Select the planar profile to be swept out, that is the circle.
3. Select a guide curve.
4. If needed, select a spline. If no spline is selected, the guide curve
is implicitly used as the spline.
5. If needed, select a second guide curve.
6. If you want to control the position of the profile during the sweep,
you can select a reference surface. You can impose a reference angle
on this surface.
7. Click OK to create the swept surface.
 Creating Swept Surfaces
Cont’d…
Swept circle along a curvilinear guiding curve.
Ex. 4. Creating Fill Surfaces
Ex.5. Creating Blended Surfaces
 Ex. 6. Creating Spherical Surfaces
 The spherical surface is based on a center point, an
axis-system defining the meridian & parallel curves
orientation, and angular limits.
1) Click the Sphere icon from the Extrude-Revolution
toolbar.
2) Select the center point of the sphere.
3) Select an axis-system
4) Click Apply to preview the surface.
5) Modify the Sphere radius and the Angular Limits as
required
 This axis-system determines the orientation of the
meridian and parallel curves, and therefore of the
sphere.
 Ex. 7. Creating Cylindrical Surfaces
1) Click the Cylinder icon

2) Select the Point that gives the center of the circle

to be extruded and specify the desired Direction
of the cylinder axis

3) Select the Radius of the cylinder.

4) Enter values or use the graphic manipulators to

define the start and end limits of the extrusion.

5) You can click the Reverse Direction button to

display the direction of the cylinder on the other
side of the selected point or click the arrow in the
3D geometry.

6) Click OK to create the surface

 Ex. 8 Creating Offset Surfaces
1) Click the Offset icon
2) Select the Surface to be offset.
3) Specify the Offset by entering a value or
using the graphic manipulator. An arrow
indicates the proposed direction for the
offset.
4) The offset surface is displayed normal to the
reference surface.
5) Click Apply to preview the offset surface
6) Check the Both sides button to generate two
offset surfaces, one on each side of the
reference surface.
7) Click OK to create the surfaces.
 Geometric Modeling
❑ 3D GM has the ability to provide all the information required for
manufacturing applications. The basic 3D GM approaches available
to designers on CAD systems are:
➢ The line model (Wireframe modeling).
➢ Surface modeling.
➢ Solid or Volume modeling.
 Wireframe Modeling
❑ Wireframe Modelling: these modelling methods rely on the ability of the user to
define the basic elements such as points, lines and circles to be defined in a
number of ways. The user uses edges and vertices of the part to form a 3-Dobject
 Wireframe Modeling
❑ Curves plays important role in
generating a wire frame
modelling
Advantages :
1. Ease of creation.
2. Low level of hardware and
software requirements.
3. Data storage requirement is
low.
Disadvantages:
1. It can very confusing to
visualize.
Example : A blind hole in a box may
be look like a solid cylinder
Wireframe Modeling
Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
• Boolean Operators and their effect on Model Construction
Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
 Sweeping
• Linear sweep between two cross sections
 Sweeping
• Component Model by Rotational Sweep