2nd lecture

Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) refer to a category of weaponry capable of causing

significant harm or death to large populations and extensive destruction to the environment and
infrastructure. The term encompasses three primary types: nuclear, biological, and chemical
weapons.
1. Types of WMD
Nuclear Weapons: These are explosive devices that derive their destructive power from nuclear
reactions, either fission or fusion. The atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima exemplifies the
catastrophic effects of nuclear weapons, which can kill or injure tens of thousands instantly and
cause long-term radiation effects.
Biological Weapons: These utilize pathogens or toxins to cause disease or death in humans,
animals, or plants. Historical examples include the use of anthrax and plague during warfare.
Despite their potential, biological weapons have not been used extensively in modern conflicts
since World War II.
Chemical Weapons: These include toxic chemicals that can incapacitate or kill through various
mechanisms, such as nerve agents like sarin or blistering agents like mustard gas. Their use has
been documented in conflicts like World War I and more recently in the Syrian Civil War
AI-generated weapons are designed using AI to speed up weapon design and manufacturing,
potentially creating highly customized and advanced systems. However, giving AI control over
weapon creation raises concerns about safety, accountability, and misuse.
Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS)
LAWS, also known as "killer robots," can independently select and attack targets. They operate
without direct human oversight, using algorithms to identify targets. This autonomy raises ethical
issues regarding accountability and the risk of unintended actions in combat.
The rise of AI-generated weapons and lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS) brings major
ethical, legal, and security challenges.

Impacts
(WMDs) pose serious threats due to their potential for mass casualties, environmental harm, and
psychological impact. They are challenging to prevent and control, especially when deployed
covertly. The rise of AI-generated weapons and lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS)
brings major ethical, legal, and security challenges. International treaties like the Nuclear Non-
Proliferation Treaty (NPT), Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), and Chemical Weapons
Convention (CWC) aim to regulate WMDs, though enforcing these agreements is complex.
Current concerns include the risk of WMDs falling into the hands of terrorists, unstable states
pursuing WMD programs, and technological advances making WMDs more accessible. Global
efforts focus on cooperation, intelligence sharing, and strict enforcement to reduce these risks.
Confidence-Building Measures (CBMs) in arms control aim to reduce tensions and foster trust
among states, playing a crucial role in preventing conflicts and supporting disarmament. These
measures include transparency efforts like sharing military data, imposing limits on specific
weapon deployments, establishing communication channels for crisis management, and
conducting joint military exercises to enhance cooperation. CBMs are particularly important in
regions with historical tensions, as they can stabilize relationships and prevent escalations.
However, challenges like voluntary participation, differing threat perceptions, and reliance on
political commitment can limit their effectiveness. Overall, CBMs are essential for promoting
global peace and security, though their success depends on consistent cooperation among
nations.
3Cs of deterrence—Capability, Communication, and Credibility
1. Capability
Capability refers to a state's actual military power and resources that enable it to deter potential
aggressors. This includes the size, technology, and readiness of armed forces, as well as the types
of weapons available.
Nuclear Arsenals: Both India and Pakistan possess nuclear weapons, which significantly
enhance their deterrent capabilities. India has developed a diverse range of nuclear delivery
systems, including the Agni missiles (with varying ranges) and a nuclear triad, allowing for
launch from land, sea, and air. Pakistan has developed tactical nuclear weapons like the Nasr
missile, designed for quick deployment in regional conflicts.
Second-Strike Capability: India’s development of submarine-launched ballistic missiles
(SLBMs), such as the K-15, demonstrates its second-strike capability, ensuring it can respond to
a nuclear attack. This capability is crucial for maintaining a credible deterrent posture against
Pakistan.
2. Communication
Communication involves how effectively a state conveys its deterrent threats and intentions to
potential adversaries. Clear and transparent messaging is vital for preventing misunderstandings.
Public Statements and Doctrines: India has publicly committed to a "No First Use" (NFU)
policy, stating it will only use nuclear weapons in response to a nuclear attack. This policy is
communicated through official statements and defense documents, signaling its defensive
posture. Pakistan, conversely, has a more ambiguous stance, often indicating it might use nuclear
weapons if faced with a significant conventional threat, which is communicated through both
military exercises and public rhetoric.
Crisis Management Communication: Following the Pulwama attack in 2019, India conducted
airstrikes in Balakot, which were publicly articulated as a counter-terrorism measure. Pakistan’s
immediate response included not only military actions but also public statements reinforcing its
readiness to defend its territory. The existence of military hotlines between the two countries
allows for direct communication during crises to avoid escalation.
3. Credibility
Credibility refers to the perceived reliability of a state's threats and commitments. A credible
deterrent is one where adversaries believe the state will act on its threats if necessary.
Demonstrated Resolve: After the Balakot strikes, Pakistan shot down an Indian fighter jet and
captured its pilot, demonstrating its willingness to respond forcefully to perceived aggression.
This action reinforced Pakistan’s credibility regarding its nuclear deterrent, showing that it
would act if its national security were threatened.
Consistent Policies: India's NFU policy is bolstered by its historical actions and military
exercises that emphasize deterrence. The consistent posture of both countries, maintaining
readiness along the Line of Control (LoC), further reinforces the credibility of their respective
deterrents, as both sides understand the serious implications of crossing established thresholds.
The interplay of Capability, Communication, and Credibility shapes the deterrent strategies of
both India and Pakistan. India’s robust nuclear capabilities and clear communication of its NFU
policy create a defensive posture aimed at stability, while Pakistan’s willingness to use nuclear
weapons if necessary, along with its tactical capabilities, enhances its deterrence credibility.
Together, these elements help prevent escalation, contributing to a fragile peace between the two
nuclear-armed neighbors.
Nuclear Capability
Nuclear capability refers to a country's ability to create, maintain, and use nuclear weapons. This
involves several important areas:
Components of Nuclear Capability
Development and Production
Weapons Design: Countries need the technical skills to create nuclear weapons, including both
atomic (fission) and hydrogen (fusion) bombs. This requires advanced physics and engineering.
Material Acquisition: Nations must secure fissile materials, like uranium-235 and plutonium-
239, which are vital for building nuclear warheads. This involves processes to enrich uranium
and reprocess plutonium.
Delivery Systems
Missile Technology: Having effective delivery systems is crucial. These include intercontinental
ballistic missiles (ICBMs), submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and strategic
bombers that can accurately hit targets from long distances.
Types of Weapons: Countries may develop tactical nuclear weapons for short-range use on the
battlefield and strategic weapons designed for long-range deterrence.
Operational Readiness
Second-Strike Capability: A credible nuclear deterrent means a country can respond to a
nuclear attack with its own strike. This discourages other nations from launching a first attack.
Survivability: It’s essential for nuclear forces to survive an initial attack. This can involve
placing weapons in submarines or fortified silos.
Strategic Implications
Deterrence Theory: The idea that having nuclear weapons can prevent adversaries from
attacking due to the fear of massive retaliation. The concept of Mutually Assured Destruction
(MAD) illustrates this, where both sides ensure that any conflict would lead to devastating
losses.
International Relations: Nuclear-armed countries often have considerable influence in global
politics. Their nuclear status can affect diplomatic relations, alliances, and security issues, as
seen in the tensions between India and Pakistan.
Arms Control Efforts: The presence of nuclear weapons has led to treaties aimed at controlling
their spread and reducing stockpiles, like the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons (NPT).

Nuclear-powered submarines
They are special submarines that use nuclear reactors to run, which lets them stay underwater for
a long time without needing to refuel. This makes them very stealthy and allows them to travel
far.
•They can stay submerged for months, only needing to worry about food and crew comfort.
•They were first introduced with the USS Nautilus in 1954, leading many countries to create
their own.
•They can operate for about 30 years without needing new fuel and have strong safety features,
but they are very expensive to build and maintain.
•While they don’t pollute much while operating, there are concerns about handling nuclear waste
and safety in case of accidents.
Overall, these submarines are important for the military and help keep the seas safe.

Realism
 Core Ideas of Realism: Realists generally believe that state behavior is driven by self-interest,
either due to human flaws or the anarchic nature of the international system, leading to ongoing
conflict and competition for power and security.

Historical Context: Realist theories date back to ancient writings but are particularly focused on
20th-century developments. Critics often recognize historical evidence that supports realism’s
view of conflict as a constant in international relations.

Classical Realism: This theory centers on human nature, suggesting that the innate desire for
power leads to competition among states. Key tenets include:

 Human Nature: Flawed human characteristics drive state behavior.

 State Behavior: States act to ensure their survival and security.
 Conflict Origin: Wars arise from human failings, often exacerbated by aggressive
leaders.
 Pessimistic Outlook: International relations are viewed as a power struggle, making
cooperation difficult.
 Realpolitik: Practicality often overshadows moral considerations in foreign policy.
 Key figures in classical realism include Edward Hallett Carr, Hans Morgenthau, and
Reinhold Niebuhr, among others. Morgenthau's work, Politics Among Nations, is
particularly influential in defining the principles of classical realism.

Neorealism (Waltz’s Theory): Kenneth Waltz shifts focus from individual leaders to the
structure of the international system, identifying three core elements that define state
interactions: ordering principles (anarchy vs. hierarchy), character of units (similarity vs.
difference among states), and distribution of capabilities (multipolar vs. bipolar systems). He
argues that states act similarly under anarchy and that the system’s structure influences their
behavior.

Defensive and Offensive Structural Realism:

 Defensive Structural Realism: States prioritize security and often prefer to maintain the
status quo rather than seek expansion, arguing that aggressive actions can lead to
backlash.
 Offensive Structural Realism: States are driven to maximize power due to fear and
distrust, with the ultimate goal of achieving regional dominance. It examines how states
strategically expand their influence.

Rise and Fall Realism: This theory explores how power dynamics lead to conflict, particularly
when rising states challenge dominant powers. It suggests that wars are more likely when
dissatisfied states feel they can challenge the status quo.

Neoclassical Realism: This variant acknowledges that both global and domestic factors shape a
country's foreign policy. It emphasizes the role of internal politics and leaders' beliefs in
influencing state behavior, arguing that domestic structures can lead to inadequate responses to
external threats.
 Liberalism

Liberalism in Security Studies focuses on the importance of individuals, institutions, and

cooperation in creating security, contrasting with realism’s emphasis on state power and
sovereignty.

1. Individual Security: The primary focus is on the security of individuals rather than
states, emphasizing human rights and well-being.
2. Role of Institutions: International organizations, like the UN, help promote cooperation,
dialogue, and peaceful conflict resolution, reducing the chances of war.
3. Democratic Peace Theory: Democracies are less likely to engage in war with one
another due to shared values and internal checks on power.
4. Economic Interdependence: Economic ties between countries make conflict less
appealing since trade creates mutual benefits.

Challenges:

 Realist Critique: Critics argue liberalism is too optimistic and underestimates power
dynamics.
 Securitization Issues: The tendency to frame issues as security threats may conflict with
liberal goals of freedom and openness.
 State-Centric Language: Some liberal scholars still focus too much on state actions
rather than individual rights.

Conclusion:

Liberalism offers a framework for understanding global security through human rights,
democratic governance, and cooperation, remaining relevant in addressing contemporary
challenges like terrorism and climate change.