R.A.

9299 Republic of the Philippines June 25, 2004

NEGROS ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY
NOHS (1907) | NOTS (1927) | EVSAT (1956) | CVPC (1983)
Kagawasan Ave., Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental, Philippines 6200
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan Dumaguete City 6200

CE 348 - WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

CHAPTER IV:
PEAK RUNOFF ESTIMATION

Submitted by:
Buloron, Jan Luwilm E.
Cadayday, Kent Renyl E.
Calongcong, Michael
Dapiosen, Alondra C.
Davis, Albert M.
Inoferio, Jose Victor
Rodriguez, Loesse C.

Submitted to:
Dr. Irismay Jumawan

September 2024
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION

II. TIME OF CONCENTRATION

1) NRCS Method

2) Kerby-Kirpich Method

3) Average Velocity Method

4) FAA Method

III. RATIONAL METHOD

IV. SCS CN Method

V. NCRS-TR 55

VI. POST-TEST

VII. REFERENCES
I. Time of Concentration

Time of Concentration (TOC or Tc), one of the most important hydrologic parameters

for runoff calculation and modeling, is defined as the time it takes a drop of rainfall to travel

from the most hydraulically remote point of the drainage basin to its outlet or point of

analysis. TOC is a key measure of how quickly a watershed responds to rainfall. It is the time

it takes for a drop of rain to flow from the furthest point in the watershed to the outlet.

Source:https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/new-england-mid-atlantic/habitat-conservation/what-
watershed
Figure I-1. Watershed
There are many factors influencing TOC, including but not limited to drainage basin

area & shape, terrain, land use & urbanization, soils, natural channels and man-made

drainage systems, storage effect from wetland/pond/reservoir.

In hydrograph analysis, the time of concentration is present when the peak runoff

occurs. Basically, when the point with the longest travel time to the watershed outlet arrives,

the other parts of the watershed have also arrived at the outlet. This means that all parts of the

watershed have already contributed to the flow and therefore peak runoff occurs.
 (Source: https://rashms.com/blog/time-of-concentration-toc-estimation/)
Figure I-2. Hydrograph.
There are a lot of methods to calculate TOC. TOC estimation is often subjective and

depends greatly on engineering judgment. TOC calculation using multiple methods should

always be carried out to cross-check each other’s results.

The general process or idea in solving for the time of concentration is we need to get

the sum of the time of concentration for all flows present in the watershed to the outlet. There

are two (2) flows in the watershed: the overland flow (sheet flow and shallow concentrated

flow) and the channel flow.

𝑡𝑐 = 𝑡𝑜 + 𝑡𝑐ℎ (Eq. I-1)

Where:

tc = the time of concentration

to = the time traveled by overland flow (tsh-sheet flow + tsc-shallow concentrated

flow)

tch = the time travel by channel flow

Understanding the type of surface flow and its characteristics:

Sheet flow is the flow of water over a relatively flat surface in a thin, uniform layer. It

is the most common type of surface flow and occurs at the beginning of a rainfall event, when

the water has not yet accumulated enough to form channels. Sheet flow is relatively slow and
has a low velocity. It is also the least concentrated type of surface flow, with the water spread

out over a large area.

(Source: https://bucksccd.org/programs-and-services/watershed-management/resident-
resources/backyard-stormwater-management/)
Figure I-3. Sheet Flow.

Shallow concentrated flow occurs when sheet flow, which is the initial spread of

water over a surface, begins to gather in small channels or depressions. This concentration of

water leads to an increase in depth and velocity compared to sheet flow.

Shallow concentrated flow can be particularly problematic in areas with steep slopes

or impermeable surfaces. The increased depth and velocity of the water can lead to erosion,

as the water can pick up and carry sediment. This can result in damage to infrastructure,

pollution of waterways, and loss of topsoil.

To mitigate the effects of shallow concentrated flow, it is important to implement

appropriate drainage measures, such as swales, ditches, or detention ponds. These measures

can help to control the flow of water and prevent erosion.

 (Source: https://learn.hydrologystudio.com/hydrology-studio/knowledge-base/time-of-
concentration)
Figure I-4. Shallow Concentrated Flow.
Channel flow is the flow of water in a well-defined channel, such as a stream or river.

Channel flow is the fastest and most concentrated type of surface flow. It can also be the most

erosive, as the water can carry a lot of sediment and debris.

\(Source: https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/velocity-distribution-open-
channels/5884/)
Figure I-5. Channel Flow.
Below is an overview of a sketched watershed showing the combination of 3 types of surface

flow in a given area:

(Source: https://ohstormwaterconference.com/wp-content/uploads/2018-presentations/K-
Kagy-T1E.pdf)
Figure I-6. Watershed.
A watershed with three types of surface flow:

A watershed, also known as a catchment basin, is a geographic area that drains to a

common point, such as a river, lake, or ocean. A sketched watershed can illustrate the various

types of surface flow within a specific area. In many cases, a watershed will exhibit a

combination of sheet flow, overland flow, and channel flow. Sheet flow occurs when rainfall

spreads evenly across a surface. Overland flow refers to the movement of water across the

land surface, often following natural slopes or depressions. Channel flow occurs when water

is concentrated in defined channels, such as streams or rivers. A well-drawn watershed sketch

will visually represent the interplay of these three flow types, providing valuable insights into

the hydrology and water resources of the area.

 1. NRCS Method

NRCS method is a velocity-based TOC method which divides a flow path into 3 or

more segments. The main drawback of the NRCS method is that it requires a lot of

parameters and some of them are not easy to properly estimate or acquire. Also, how to

divide a flow path into different segments is often arbitrary.

Solving for:

a) Sheet flow travel time (tsh)

The sheet flow happens at the beginning of a flow path where usually the depth of flow is

less than 0.1 ft. The sheet flow travel time can be estimated via the (Eq. 1-1) where the sheet

flow length L should not exceed 100ft unless solving it as a whole segment (usually for a

lesser watershed). One way to estimate the sheet flow length L is to apply the McCuen-Spiess

equation as shown in (Eq. 1-2).

0.007(𝑛𝐿)0.8
𝑇𝑠ℎ = (Eq. 1-1)
(𝑃2 )0.5 𝑆0.4

Where:

Tsh = Sheet flow travel time, hr

n = Manning’s roughness coefficient for sheet flow (Table 1)

L = Sheet flow length, ft (maximum: 100 ft)

P2 = 2-year 24-hour rainfall depth, inch (local drainage manual or NOAA Atlas 14)

S = Slope of sheet flow land surface, ft/ft

Estimate sheet flow length using the McCuen-Spiess equation:

100𝑆0.5
𝐿= 𝑛
(Eq. 1-2)

Where:

n = Manning’s roughness coefficient for sheet flow (Table 1)

S = Slope of sheet flow land surface, ft/ft

Originally, the sheet flow travel time was calculated by the Kinematic Wave Equation, which

requires an iterative process to solve since the rainfall intensity i depends on T sh.

0.93(𝑛𝐿)0.6
𝑇𝑠ℎ = (Eq. 1-3)
𝑖 0.4 𝑆 0.3

Where:

Tsh = Sheet flow travel time, min

n = Manning’s roughness coefficient for sheet flow (Table 1)

L = Sheet flow length, ft (maximum: 100 ft)

i = Rainfall Intensity at Toc = Tsh, in/hr (Iterative process to solve Tsh and i)

S = Slope of sheet flow land surface, ft/ft

Table 1-1. Roughness Coefficient “n” for sheet flow.

(Source: https://rashms.com/blog/time-of-concentration-toc-estimation/)
 b) Shallow concentrated travel time (tsc)

Shallow concentrated flow happens in swales, small rills, and gullies with a flow depth of

0.1 to 0.5ft where there is not a well-defined channel. The shallow concentrated flow length

usually is less than 1000ft.

The computed Average Velocity described below is based on the solution of Manning’s

equation with different assumptions for n (Manning’s roughness coefficient) and r (hydraulic

radius, ft). For example, Per TR55, for Paved areas, n is 0.025 and r is 0.2; Unpaved areas, n

is 0.05 and r is 0.4. Shallow concentrated flow travel time T-sc is calculated as:
𝐿
𝑠𝑐 𝐿
𝑇𝑠𝑐 = 3600𝑉 = 3600(𝐾𝑠𝑐 0.5 ) (Eq. 1-4)
𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑐

Where:

Tsc = Shallow concentrated flow travel time, hr

Lsc = Shallow concentrated flow length, ft

Ssc = Shallow concentrated flow slope, ft/ft

K = 16.13 for unpaved surface, 20.32 for paved surface

Vsc = Ave.Velocity of flow, ft/s

By calculating the shallow concentrated flow travel time, you can estimate the time it

takes for runoff to reach the outlet or downstream channel from the point of shallow

concentrated flow. This information is valuable for designing drainage systems and assessing

the potential for flooding.

The average velocity of flow, denoted as Vsc, is a crucial parameter in the analysis of

shallow concentrated flow. It represents the speed at which water moves through the swale,

rill, or gully. Vsc is typically measured in feet per second (ft/s).

You can find information about Vsc on a velocity-slope graph. These graphs depict

the relationship between flow velocity and channel slope for different types of flow. By

identifying the appropriate curve on the velocity-slope graph based on the characteristics of
the shallow concentrated flow path (e.g., roughness, depth), you can estimate the

corresponding average velocity.

Knowing the average velocity of flow is essential for calculating the shallow

concentrated flow travel time (T-sc). This information is used in the design of drainage

systems to ensure adequate capacity and prevent flooding.

Source: https://rashms.com/blog/time-of-concentration-toc
estimation/#:~:text=Similar%20to%20NRCS%20method%2C%20the,%2BT%2Dn
Figure 1-1. Average Velocity - Slope Graph.

c) Channel flow travel time (tch)

The velocity should be computed for normal depth (uniform flow condition) based on

bank-full flow conditions. Flow with return periods from 1.5 to 3 years (2-year as the average)

is often assumed to produce bank-full condition.

To determine the appropriate flow rate for calculating velocity, it is often assumed that

flows with return periods of 1.5 to 3 years, with an average of 2 years, will produce bank-full

conditions. Bank-full flow occurs when the water level reaches the top of the channel banks,

effectively filling the channel to capacity. This flow rate is considered representative of the
maximum flow that the channel can handle without overflowing. By using the bank-full flow

rate, you can ensure that the calculated velocity is based on a realistic and critical flow

condition.

Once the bank-full flow rate is determined, the channel flow velocity (Vch) can be

calculated using hydraulic equations such as Manning's equation or the Chezy equation.

These equations relate the flow velocity to the channel geometry, roughness, and water depth.

By knowing the channel dimensions and the bank-full flow rate, you can estimate the

corresponding channel flow velocity.

𝐿𝑐ℎ 𝐿𝑐ℎ
𝑇𝑐ℎ = = 1.49 2⁄ (Eq. 1-5)
3600𝑉𝑐ℎ 3600( 𝑅 3 𝑆𝑠𝑐 0.5 )
𝑛

Where:

Tch = Channel flow travel time, hr

Lch = Channel flow length, ft

Sch = Channel flow slope, ft/ft

n = Manning’s roughness coefficient of channel

R = Hydraulic radius, ft

To calculate the hydraulic radius (R) for channel flow, it is typically assumed that the

flow is at bank-full condition. This means that the water level reaches the top of the channel

banks, effectively filling the channel to capacity. The bank-full flow condition is often

associated with flows that have a return period of 1.5 to 3 years. By assuming bank-full flow,

you can estimate the hydraulic radius based on the channel geometry and the corresponding

water depth. The hydraulic radius (R) can also be estimated using empirical equations or

based on field measurements. Empirical equations, such as the Manning equation, relate the

hydraulic radius to other channel characteristics, such as the channel slope and roughness.

Field measurements, such as cross-sectional surveys and flow velocity measurements, can

provide more accurate estimates of the hydraulic radius.

Sample Problem:

(Source: https://rashms.com/blog/time-of-concentration-toc-estimation/)
Figure 1-2. NRCS ToC.

The figure illustrates a hypothetical drainage system for a roadway. The system

includes an inlet, a pipe network, and an outlet. The pavement limit or crown refers to the

edge of the paved surface.The drainage system consists of three main components: sheet flow,

gutter flow, and storm sewer flow. Sheet flow occurs on the roadway surface, while gutter

flow occurs in the channels along the sides of the road. Storm sewer flow occurs within the

underground pipes.

The lengths of the different flow paths are indicated in the figure: sheet flow length

(L-sh), gutter flow length (L-sc), and storm sewer length (L-sewer). The slopes of the flow

paths are also provided, denoted as S-sh, S-sc, and S-sewer, respectively.

The NRCS method is used to calculate the travel time for each flow path. The

calculated travel times are then summed to determine the total time of concentration (TOC)

for the drainage system. The TOC is an important parameter in the design of drainage

systems as it helps determine the required capacity of the pipes and other components.
 3. Average Velocity Method

Another simple but quite useful velocity-based TOC method is the average velocity

method. Similar to NRCS method, the flow path is divided into different segments: overland

flow, gutter flow, roadside ditch flow, storm sewer flow, channel or ditch flow, and the total TOC

is the sum of each segment travel time: TOC= T-1+T-2+…+T-n. For each segment travel time

T-i, only two parameters are needed: segment flow path length L (ft) and the average flow

velocity V (fps) which can be looked up in Table 3-1 or Table 3-2.

Overland Flow - is water that runs across the land after rainfall, either before it enters a

watercourse, after it leaves a watercourse as floodwater, or after it rises to the surface naturally

from underground. It does not include: water that has naturally infiltrated the soil in normal

farming operations.

Gutter Flow - A gutter directs the flow of rainwater away from the house, often into a drain or

rain barrel. There are other kinds of gutters, too, like the gutters that drain water on the edge of a

street and the gutters on the sides of a bowling lane.

Roadside Ditch Flow - means a drainage feature adjacent to or within a right of way along public

or private roads, railroads or other similar development feature that has been constructed or

modified and serves to collect and transport water draining from the development feature or the

right of way.

Storm Sewer Flow- is a pipe network that conveys surface drainage from a surface inlet or

through a manhole to an outlet location. These pipes collect rainwater from streets, rooftops, and

other surfaces and transport it to a safe outlet, such as a river or lake. Proper storm sewer systems

are essential for managing stormwater runoff and protecting infrastructure.

Channel or Ditch Flow - means a man-made, open drainage way or channel other than a

modified natural stream in or into which excess surface water or groundwater from land,

stormwater runoff, or floodwaters flow.

Formula for Total Time Concentration:

TOC = T-1 + T-2 + T-3 … T-n (Eq. 3-1)

For each segment travel time T-i, only two parameters are needed: segment flow path length L

(ft) and the average flow velocity V (fps) which can be looked up in Table C-1 or Table C-2.

T-i = L / 60V (Eq. 3-2)

Where:

L = segment flow path length (feet)

V = average flow velocity (feet/second)

Table 3-1. Flow velocities for TOC estimation

(Source: https://rashms.com/blog/time-of-concentration-toc-estimation/)
Table 3-2. Flow velocities for TOC estimation

(Source: https://rashms.com/blog/time-of-concentration-toc-estimation/)

An example to calculate TOC for a roadway drainage area using average velocity method is:

(Source: https://rashms.com/blog/time-of-concentration-toc-estimation/)

Figure 3-1: Average Velocity Method

 4. FAA Method
TOC equation developed by the Federal Aviation Administration developed in 1970

from airfield drainage data. TOC is a crucial parameter in the Rational Method for estimating

peak runoff. It represents the time required for runoff to travel from the most remote point in a

catchment area to the outlet. FAA method is probably most valid for small watersheds in an

urban basin where sheet flow or overland flow controls. FAA method tends to overestimate

inlet time if the inlet time flow path has a significant portion of shallow concentrated flow. For

the reasons above, FAA method is not recommended for TOC calculation unless overland flow

overwhelmingly dominates the entire flow path.

𝑇𝑂𝐶 = 1.8(1.1 − 𝐶 )𝐿0.5𝑆 −0.333 (Eq. 4-1)

Where:

TOC = Time of Concentration, min

C = Rational Method Runoff Coefficient

L = Flow Length, ft

S = Slope along flow path, percent or 100*dimensionless slope

Note: Some sources incorrectly suggest S be entered as the dimensionless slope in the above

equation format. The constant of 1.8 should be changed to 0.388 for S to be a dimensionless

(ft/ft) value.

The FAA method is based on empirical data collected from airfield drainage systems. It

provides a relatively simple and straightforward approach for estimating TOC in small urban

watersheds. For more complex catchments or when higher accuracy is required, other methods

may be more appropriate. These methods consider additional factors such as land cover, soil

type, and channel roughness, providing more comprehensive estimates of TOC.

Sample Problem 4.1:

Given:

C=0.9, L=1000ft, S=0.006=0.6%

Solution:

𝑇𝑂𝐶 = 1.8(1.1 − 𝐶 )𝐿0.5𝑆 −0.333

𝑇𝑂𝐶 = 1.8(1.1 − 0.9)(1000)0.5 (0.6)−0.333

𝑻𝑶𝑪 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔

In the above equation format, if S is entered as a dimensionless value of 0.006 as some other

sources suggested, the TOC will be unreasonably large, 62.5 minutes.

Sample Problem 4.2:

Given:

Dense Grass (n = 0.24, C = 0.2, N = 0.8)

Length = 200ft

Location with a precipitation of 2.5inch

Slope = 3%

Solution:

• Using FAA Method:

𝑇 = 1.8(1.1 − 𝐶 )𝐿0.5 𝑆 −0.333

𝑇 = 1.8(1.1 − 0.2)2000.5 3−0.333

𝑻 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟖𝟗 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔
 • Using NCRS- sheet flow time flow or manning’s kinematic eq.

0.007(𝑛𝐿)0.8
𝑇= (𝑃2 )0.5 𝑆 0.4

0.8
0.007((0.24)(200))
𝑇= (2.5)0.5 0.030.4

𝑇 = 0.398 ℎ𝑟. = 𝟐𝟒 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔

• Using Kerby Equation

0.828(𝑁𝐿𝑜𝑣 )0.467
𝑇= 0.235
𝑆𝑜𝑣

0.467
0.828((0.8)(200))
𝑇=
0.030.235

𝑻 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟒 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔

To estimate Time of Concentration (TOC), various methods can be used. The FAA method is

suitable for small urban watersheds. The Kerby-Kirpich and NRCS methods offer more

comprehensive approaches considering factors like land cover and soil type. By combining

these methods, engineers can obtain accurate TOC estimates.

III. RATIONAL METHOD

Calculation of peak storm runoff rate from a drainage area is often done with the

Rational Method equation. Calculations with the Rational Method equation usually involve

determining the design of rainfall intensity and the time of concentration of the watershed. The

Rational Method (or Rational Formula) is:

Q = Cf C i A (Eq.III-1)

Where:

Q = Peak flow

Cf = Runoff coefficient adjustment factor to account for reduction of infiltration and

other losses during high-intensity storms

C = Runoff coefficient to reflect the ratio of rainfall to surface runoff

i = Rainfall intensity

A = Drainage area

Detailed descriptions of the Rational Method input variables follow:

Runoff Coefficient “C” - The runoff coefficient represents the integrated effects of infiltration,

evaporation, retention, flow routing, and interception, all of which affect peak rate of runoff.

The coefficient may vary concerning prior wetting and seasonal conditions. The use of average

values has been adopted to simplify the determination of this coefficient. Table III-1 lists runoff

coefficients for various combinations of ground cover and slope. Where a drainage area is

composed of subareas with different runoff coefficients, a composite coefficient for the total

drainage area is computed by dividing the summation of the products of the subareas and their
coefficients by the total area. Therefore, the runoff coefficient for composite land use is

modified as:

∑(𝐶𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 )(𝐴𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 )

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝐶 = (Eq. III-2)
𝐴𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

The impervious surface area is often a factor in stormwater storage and water quality treatment

designs. Impervious surfaces had runoff coefficients greater than 0.80 based on Table III-1.

Table III-1. Runoff Coefficients for the Rational Method

Flat Rolling Hilly
Pavement & Roofs 0.9 0.9 0.9
Earth Shoulders 0.5 0.5 0.5
Drives & Walks 0.75 0.8 0.85
Gravel Pavement 0.85 0.85 0.85
City Business Areas 0.8 0.85 0.85
Apartment Dwelling Areas 0.5 0.6 0.7
Light Residential: 1 to 3 units/acre 0.35 0.4 0.45
Normal Residential: 3 to 6 units/acre 0.5 0.55 0.6
Dense Residential: 6 to 15 units/acre 0.7 0.75 0.8
Lawns 0.17 0.22 0.35
Grass Shoulders 0.25 0.25 0.25
Side Slopes, Earth 0.6 0.6 0.6
Side Slopes Turf 0.3 0.3 0.3
Median Areas, Turf 0.25 0.3 0.3
Cultivated Land, Clay & Loam 0.5 0.55 0.6
Cultivated Land, Sand & Gravel 0.25 0.3 0.35
Industrial Areas, Light 0.5 0.7 0.8
Industrial Areas, Heavy 0.6 0.8 0.9
Parks & Cemeteries 0.1 0.15 0.25
Playgrounds 0.2 0.25 0.3
Woodland & Forests 0.1 0.15 0.2
Meadows & Pastureland 0.25 0.3 0.35
Unimproved Areas 0.1 0.2 0.3
(Source: https://intrans.iastate.edu/app/uploads/sites/15/2020/03/2B-4.pdf)

Note:

▪ Impervious surfaces in bold

▪ Rolling = ground slope between 2 percent to 10 percent

▪ Hilly = ground slope greater than 10 percent

Runoff Coefficient Adjustment Factor "Cf" - The coefficients in Table III-2 are applicable

for 10-year or less recurrence interval storms. Less frequently, higher-intensity storms require

adjusted runoff coefficients because infiltration and other losses have a proportionally smaller

effect on runoff. Runoff coefficient adjustment factors (Cf) for storms of different recurrence

intervals are listed in Table III-2.

Table III-2. Runoff Coefficient Adjustment Factors

Recurrence Interval Runoff Coefficient Adjustment Factor

10 years or less 1.0
25 years 1.1
50 years 1.2
100 years 1.25
(Source: https://intrans.iastate.edu/app/uploads/sites/15/2020/03/2B-4.pdf)

Area "A" - The area is defined as the drainage surface area in acres, measured in a horizontal

plane. The area is usually measured from plans or maps using a planimeter. The area includes

all land enclosed by the surrounding drainage divides. In highway drainage design, this area

will frequently include upland properties beyond the highway right-of-way.

Rainfall Intensity "i" - This variable indicates rainfall severity. Rainfall intensity is related to

rainfall duration and design storm recurrence interval. Rainfall intensity at a duration equal to

the time of concentration (Tc) is used to calculate the peak flow in the Rational Method. The

rainfall intensity can be selected from the appropriate intensity-duration recurrence interval (I-

D-F) curve. The intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curve is a set of characteristics curve that

describe the rainfall characteristics specific to the region. In many design problems related to

watershed management, it is necessary to know the rainfall intensities of different durations

and different return periods. It takes into the account of probabilistic of the rainfall to exceed

certain intensity and its frequency in the selected return period.

The inter-relationship among the intensity, i, (mm/h), duration, D (h) and return period, T

(years) is described in the figure below:

Figure III-1. Typical Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency Curve

The Rational Method, while a valuable tool for estimating peak runoff, has several

limitations and assumptions that should be considered when applying it. These limitations

include:

• The drainage area should not be larger than 200 acres.

• The peak flow is assumed to occur when the entire watershed is contributing runoff.

• The rainfall intensity is assumed to be uniform over a time duration equal to or greater

than the time of concentration, Tc.

• The peak flow recurrence interval is assumed to be equal to the rainfall intensity

recurrence interval. In other words, the 10-year rainfall intensity is assumed to produce

the 10-year flood.

For more complex catchments or when higher accuracy is required, it may be necessary to

consider other methods.

Sample Problem:

A small urban watershed has an area of 70 hectares and is generally flat and composed of light

industrial areas. Calculate the peak runoff equivalent to a 25-yr return period at its outlet if the

observed rainfall intensity is 5mm/hr.

Solution:

Using the Rational Method Equation:

Q = Cf C i A

Where:

Cf = 1.1 (from the Runoff Coefficient Adjustment Factor Table)

Table III-2. Runoff Coefficient Adjustment Factors

Recurrence Interval Runoff Coefficient Adjustment Factor

25 years 1.1

C = 0.5 (from the Runoff Coefficient Table)

Table III-1. Runoff Coefficients for the Rational Method

Flat Rolling Hilly
Industrial Areas, Light 0.5 0.7 0.8

i = 0.5 mm/hr (given)

A = 70 hectares (given)

Substitute the following data to the Rational Method Equation:

𝑚 10000𝑚2 1 ℎ𝑟
Q = (1.1)(0.5)(0.005ℎ𝑟)(70 ℎ𝑎)( )(3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠)
1 ℎ𝑎

𝟑
Therefore, the peak runoff of the small urban watershed is 𝑸 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎 ⁄𝒔 .
IV. SCS-CN METHOD

The Curve Number (CN) Method, what the method is simply known, was originally

developed by Soil Conservation Service (SCS) . Hence, also called as SCS-CN Method.

A. What is CN Method?

A hydrological tool in water resources engineering, particularly for estimating runoff from

a rainfall event.For drainage basins where no runoff has been measured, the Curve Number

Method can be used to estimate the depth of direct runoff from the rainfall depth.

CN Method is based on Two Phenomena: (1) Initial abstraction; & (2) Retention. Initial

abstraction is the initial accumulation of rainfall represents interception, depression storage,

and infiltration before the start of runoff while Retention is the additional rainfall is lost, mainly

in the form of infiltration after the runoff has started. Additionally, with increasing rainfall, the

actual retention also increases up to some maximum value: the potential maximum retention.

SCS Assumption: The ratio of actual retention (F) to potential maximum retention (S) is

equal to the ratio of actual runoff (Q) to potential maximum runoff, the latter being rainfall (P)

minus initial abstraction (Ia).

(Eq. IV-1)

Where:

F = Actual Retention (mm)

S = Potential Maximum Retention (mm)

Q = accumulated Runoff depth (mm)

P = Accumulated Rainfall Depth (mm)

Ia = Initital Abstraction
 The above relationship for certain values of the initial abstraction and potential maximum

retention is shown in Figure IV-1 below.

Source: (https://edepot.wur.nl/183157)
Figure IV-1: Accumulated runoff Q versus accumulated rainfall P according to the Curve

Number Method

After runoff has started, all additional rainfall becomes either runoff or actual retention (i.e. the

actual retention is the difference between rainfall minus initial abstraction and runoff).

𝐹 = 𝑃 − 𝐼𝑎 − 𝑄 (Eq. IV-2)

Combining Equations IV-1 and IV-2 gives,

(𝑃−𝐼 )2
𝑄 = 𝑃−𝐼 𝑎+𝑆 (Eq. IV-3)
𝑎

To eliminate the need to estimate the two variables I, and S, a regression analysis was made on

the basis of recorded rainfall and runoff data from small drainage basins. The data showed a

large amount of scatter (Soil Conservation Service 1972). The following average relationship

was found:

𝐼𝑎 = 0.2𝑆 (Eq. IV-4)

Combining Equations IV-3 and IV-4 yields,

(𝑃−0.25)2
𝑄= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃 > 0.2𝑆 (Eq. IV-5)
𝑃+0.85

Equation IV-5 shows how much runoff will happen based on how much rain falls and

how much water the ground can absorb. The Curve Number (CN) represents how much

water the ground can hold before it starts to run off. This equation makes it easier to calculate

runoff.

25400
𝐶𝑁 = (𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠) (Eq. IV-6)
254+𝑆

The Curve Number (CN) in the NRCS method can range from 0 to 100. A CN of 100 means

all rainfall becomes runoff (e.g., paved areas), while a CN of 0 means all rainfall infiltrates

(e.g., highly permeable soils).

Figure IV-2 shows how much runoff (Q) will happen for different amounts of rainfall (P) based

on the Curve Number.

Source: https://edepot.wur.nl/183157

Figure IV-2. Graphical solution of Equation IV-5 showing runoff depth Q as a function of

rainfall depth Pand curve number CN (after Soil Conservation Service 1972)
 B. Factors Determining Curve Number Value

CN is a dimensionless parameter indicating the runoff response characteristic of a drainage

basin. This parameter is related to (1) land use, (2) land treatment, (3) hydrological condition,

(4) hydrologic soil group, and (4) antecedent soil moisture condition in the drainage basin.

1. Land Use - This represents the surface conditions in a drainage basin. In the SCS method,

the following categories are distinguished:

a) Fallow - agricultural land use with the highest potential for runoff because the land is

kept bare;

b) Row crops - field crops planted in rows far enough apart that most of the soil surface

directly exposed to rainfall;

c) Small grain is planted in rows close enough that the soil surface is not directly exposed

to rainfall;

d) Close-seeded legumes or rotational meadow are either planted in close rows or

broadcasted.

e) Pasture range - native grassland used for grazing, whereas meadow is grassland

protected from grazing and generally mown for hay;

f) Woodlands - usually small isolated groves of trees being raised for farm use.

2. Treatment or Practice in relation to Hydrological Condition

Land treatment includes mechanical practices such as contouring or terracing, and

management practices such as rotation of crops, grazing control, or burning.

3. Hydrologic Soil Group - Soil properties greatly influence the amount of runoff. In the SCS

method, these properties are represented by a hydrological parameter: the minimum rate of

infiltration obtained for bare soil after prolonged wetting. The Hydrological Soil Groups, as

defined by the SCS soil scientists, are:

 a) Group A: Soils having high infiltration rates even when thoroughly wetted and a

high rate of water transmission. Examples are deep, well to excessively drained

sands or gravels.

b) Group B: Soils having moderate infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and a

moderate rate of water transmission. Examples are moderately deep to deep,

moderately well to well drained soils with moderately fine to moderately coarse

textures.

c) Group C: Soils having low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and a low rate

of water transmission. Examples are soils with a layer that impedes the downward

movement of water or soils of moderately fine to fine texture.

d) Group D: Soils having very low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and a

very low rate of water transmission. Examples are clay soils with a high swelling

potential, soils with a permanently high-water table, soils with a clay pan or clay

layer at or near the surface, or shallow soils over nearly impervious material.

5. Antecedent Moisture Condition - The soil moisture condition in the drainage basin before

runoff occurs is another important factor influencing the final CN value. In the Curve Number

Method, the soil moisture condition is classified in three Antecedent Moisture Condition

(AMC) Classes:

• AMC I: The soils in the drainage basin are practically dry (i.e. the soil moisture

content is at wilting point).

• AMC II: Average condition.

• AMC III: The soils in the drainage basins are practically saturated from antecedent

rainfalls.
These classes are based on the 5-day antecedent rainfall (i.e. the accumulated total rainfall

preceding the runoff under consideration). In the original SCS method, a distinction was made

between the dormant and the growing season to allow for differences in evapotranspiration.

C. Estimating the CN

To determine the appropriate CN value, various tables can be used. Firstly, there are tables

relating the value of CN to land use or cover, to treatment or practice, to hydrological

conditions, and to hydrologic soil group. Together, these four categories are called the

Hydrological Soil-Cover Complex. The relationship between the CN value and the various

Hydrological Soil-Cover Complexes is usually given for average conditions, (AMC Class II).

Secondly, there is a conversion table for the CN value when based on 5-day antecedent rainfall

data (AMC Class I or III).

D. Hydrological Soil Cover

The Curve Number (CN) used in the NRCS method is a dimensionless parameter that

represents the potential maximum retention of water in the soil. The value of CN ranges from

0 to 100, with higher values indicating greater runoff potential. For American conditions, the

SCS has related the value of CN to various Hydrologic Soil Cover Complexes (HSCC). Table

IV-1 shows this relationship for average conditions (i.e., Antecedent Moisture Condition Class

II). In addition to Table IV-1, the Soil Conservation Service (1972) prepared similar tables for

Puerto Rico, California, and Hawaii. Rawls and Richardson (1983) further quantified the

effects of conservation tillage on the value of the Curve Number. Jackson and Rawls (1981)

presented a table of Curve Numbers for a range of land-cover categories that could be identified

from satellite images. It's important to note that slope is not a significant factor in determining

the Curve Number in the United States, as cultivated land typically has slopes of less than 5%.
However, in regions with steeper slopes, the slope may need to be considered when determining

the CN.

However, under East African conditions, for example, the slopes vary much more. Five classes

to qualify the slope were therefore introduced (Sprenger 1978):

• I < 1% Flat

• II 1 - 5% Slightly Sloping

• III 5 - 10% Highly Sloping

• IV 10 - 20% Steep

• V > 20% Very steep

By considering the slope class in addition to other factors, a more accurate estimation of the

Curve Number can be obtained for regions with varying topography.

The category land use or cover was adjusted to East African conditions and combined with

the hydrological condition. Table IV-2 shows the Curve Numbers for these Hydrological Soil-

Cover Complexes. With the aid of tables such as Tables IV-1 and IV-2 and some experience,

one can estimate the Curve Number for a particular drainage basin. The procedure is as follows:

• Assign a hydrological soil group to each of the soil units found in the drainage basin

and prepare a hydrological soil-group map;

• Make a classification of land use, treatment, and hydrological conditions in the drainage

basin according to Table IV-1 or IV-2 and prepare a land-use map;

• Delineate the main soil-cover complexes by superimposing the land-use and the soil-

group maps;

• Calculate the weighted average CN value according to the areas they represent.
Table IV-1: Curve Numbers for Hydrological Soil-Cover Complexes for Antecedent Moisture

Condition Class 11 and Ia = 0.2S (after Soil Conservation Service 1972).

Source: (https://edepot.wur.nl/183157)
Table IV-2. Curve Numbers for Hydrological Soil-Cover Complexes for Antecedent Moisture

Condition Class I1 and Ia= 0.2 S (after Sprenger 1978).

Source: (https://edepot.wur.nl/183157)

Antecedent Moisture Condition Class By using Tables IV-1 and IV-2, we obtain a weighted

average CN value for a drainage basin with average conditions (i.e. Antecedent Moisture

Condition Class 11). To determine which AMC Class is the most appropriate for the drainage

basin under consideration, we have to use the original rainfall records. The design rainfall that

was selected in the frequency analysis usually lies between two historical rainfall events. The

average of the 5-day total historical rainfall preceding those two events determines the AMC

Class. Table IV-3 shows the corresponding rainfall limits for each of the three AMC Classes.

Additionally, you could include Table IV-3, which shows the corresponding rainfall limits

for each of the three AMC Classes. This would provide a more complete understanding of how

to determine the appropriate AMC Class for a given drainage basin.

Table IV-3. Seasonal rainfall limits for AMC classes (after Soil Conservation Service 1972)

Source: (https://edepot.wur.nl/183157)
When, according to Table IV-3, the AMC Class is not Class II, the Curve Number should

be adjusted according to Table IV-4

Table IV-4. Conversion table for Curve Numbers (CN) from Antecedent Moisture Condition
Class I1 to AMC Class I or Class 111 (after Soil Conservation Service 1972).

Formula for conversion:

Sample Problem:

A basin with a curve number of 75 has precipitation of 153 mm. Determine the runoff

from the site using SCS runoff equations.

Given:

From the problem, the following data are given:

CN = 75

P = 153 mm

Solution:

Using SCS CN Method:

25400 25400
(i) CN = S= − 254
254 + S CN
25400 254
S= − 254 =
75 3
2
  254 
153 − 0 .2 
( P − 0.2S ) 
2
 3 
(ii) Q = = = 83.876 mm
P + 0.8S  254 
153 + 0.8 
 3 
Anwer : 83.76mm

Therefore, the runoff from the site using SCS runoff equation is 83.76mm.
V. NCRS-TR-55

The Technical Release- 55 or TR-55 method presents simplified procedures to calculate

storm runoff, peak rate of discharge, and storage volumes required for flood water reservoirs. This

method aims to provide an awareness and observance for storm runoff.

TR 55 Method Formula

This peak discharge equation calculates the peak runoff rate based on the unit runoff,

drainage area, and flow path factor. The unit runoff is determined using the Curve Number (CN)

method, while the flow path factor accounts for the characteristics of the flow path, such as length,

slope, and land cover.

𝑞𝑝 = 𝑞𝑢 𝐴𝑚 𝑄𝐹𝑝 (Eq. V-1)

Where:

𝑞𝑝= peak discharge or peak runoff rate (𝑚3 /𝑠)

𝑞𝑢= unit peak discharge ((𝑚3 /𝑠)/(𝑐𝑚 · 𝑘𝑚²))

𝐴𝑚= drainage area (𝑘𝑚2 )

Q = runoff depth (cm)

𝐹𝑝 = pond and swamp adjustment factor (dimensionless)

Parameters Needed in this Method:

a) Daily Precipitation, P

For a selected rainfall frequency, we can get the 24-hour precipitation through detailed local

precipitation maps or rainfall data. You can have this in Physical Atmospheric Geophysical and
Astronomical Services Administration (PAG-ASA) as a valid source. Table V-1 below shows an

example of computed extreme values of precipitation (cm) in a certain area.

Table V-1. Computed Extreme Values of Precipitation (cm)

b) Initial Abstraction, 𝐼𝑎

Initial abstraction is a parameter that accounts for all losses prior to runoff and consist mainly

of interception, infiltration, evaporation, and surface depression storage. In theory all rainfall

minus initial abstraction will generate the runoff from a specified catchment (Iannicelli, 2014).

Initial abstraction equation used is:

𝐼𝑠 = 0.2𝑆 (Eq V-2)

Where:

S = in mm, related to the soil type, cover conditions of the watershed and antecedent runoff

condition through curve number CN

The Curve Number is a dimensionless parameter that represents the potential maximum retention

of water in the soil. A higher CN indicates greater runoff potential, while a lower CN indicates
greater infiltration. The CN is determined based on the land cover type, soil group, and antecedent

moisture condition (AMC).

1 1000
𝑆= ( − 10) (Eq. V-3)
0.0394 𝐶𝑁

Time of Concentration (ToC)

The TR-55 method utilizes Time of Concentration (Tc) to estimate peak runoff. Tc

represents the time it takes for water to travel from the most remote point in the watershed to the

outlet. This parameter is crucial because it influences the shape and peak of the runoff hydrograph.

Urbanization tends to decrease Tc, leading to higher peak discharges. The TR-55 method calculates

Tc by dividing the flow into three components: sheet flow, shallow concentrated flow, and channel

flow. The travel time for each component is computed using specific equations and parameters,

and the total Tc is determined by summing these individual travel times.

Table V-2. Values of initial abstraction for runoff curve numbers

Runoff Depth, Q

In the NRCS Curve Number method, the condition P > 0.2S must be satisfied to calculate

runoff depth (Q). This means that the total precipitation (P) must exceed the initial abstraction (Ia)

before any runoff occurs. The initial abstraction represents the portion of rainfall that is

immediately retained by the soil, vegetation, and other surface features. Once the precipitation

exceeds Ia, the excess rainfall will generate runoff.

Unit Peak Discharge, qu

The unit peak of discharge, qu, is obtained using the empirical formula:

𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑞𝑢) = 𝐶𝑜 + 𝐶1(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡𝑐 )2 − 2.366 (Eq. V-4)

Where:

Co, C1, and C2 are constant obtained from the Table V-3 shown below, and

𝑡𝑐 is in hours

This means that the values of these coefficients vary depending on the ratio of initial abstraction

to total precipitation. A higher Ia/P ratio indicates that a larger portion of the rainfall is initially

retained by the soil, leading to a lower Curve Number and reduced runoff. Conversely, a lower

Ia/P ratio indicates that a smaller portion of the rainfall is retained, leading to a higher Curve

Number and increased runoff.

The specific values of Co, C1, and C2 can be found in the NRCS Technical Release 55 (TR-55)

publication, which provides tables and charts for estimating the Curve Number based on land cover

type, soil group, and antecedent moisture condition.

Table V-3. Parameters used to estimate unit peak discharge

If 𝐼𝑎/P < 0.1, values of Co, C1, and C2 corresponding to 𝐼𝑎/P=0.1 should be used, and if

𝐼𝑎/P > 0.5, values of Co, C1, and C2 corresponding to 𝐼𝑎/P=0.5 should be used. If the computed

𝐼𝑎/P ratio falls between the limiting values, use linear interpolation. These approximations result

in reduced accuracy of the peak discharge estimates (SCS, 1986).

Drainage Area, 𝐴m

The term drainage area, 𝐴𝑚, is defined as the land area where precipitation falls off into

creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. It is a land feature that can be identified by tracing a

line along the highest elevation between two areas on a map, often a ridge. Larger drainage basins,

like the areas that drains into the Columbia River, contain many smaller drainage basins, often

called watersheds. In some cases, river basins may have noncontributing sub basins, or commonly

called enclosed basins, where the runoff stays within the basin and not contributing to the larger

basin surrounding the enclosed basin.

Pond and Swamp Adjustment Factor, 𝐹p

The pond and swamp adjustment factor is given in the table below depends on the

percentage of pond and swamp areas that are spread throughout the watershed. If the percentage

of pond and swamp areas exceeds 5%, then consideration should be given to routing the runoff

through these areas.

Table V-4. Adjustment factor (𝐹𝑝) for pond and swamp areas

Taken from Water Resources Engineering, Chin, David 2013

Limitations:

The Graphical method provides a determination of peak discharge only. If a hydrograph is

needed or watershed subdivision is required, use the Tabular Hydrograph method (chapter 5). Use

The Tabular Hydrograph method is a more comprehensive approach that involves dividing the

watershed into subareas and calculating the runoff from each subarea. It allows for a more accurate

representation of the hydrograph, including the rising limb, peak flow, and recession limb. For

very complex watersheds or when a higher degree of accuracy is required, the TR-20 method can

be used.

● The watershed must be hydrologically homogeneous, that is, describable by one CN.

● Land use, soils, and cover are distributed uniformly throughout the watershed.

● The watershed may have only one mainstream or, if more than one, the branches must

have nearly equal TC' s

● The method cannot perform valley or reservoir routing.

● The Fp factor can be applied only for ponds or swamps that are not in the Tc flow path.

● Accuracy of peak discharge estimated by this method will be reduced if Ia / P values are

used that are outside the range given in exhibit 4. The limiting Ia / P values are

recommended for use.

● This method should be used only if the weighted CN is greater than 40.

● When this method is used to develop estimates of peak discharge for both present and

developed conditions of a watershed, use the same procedure for estimating Tc.

● Tc values with this method may range from 0.1 to 10 hours.

VI. POST TEST

I. Identification:

1. It is the maximum rate of flow that occurs in a stream or river during a storm event.

2. A method used to estimate the time of concentration based on the length and slope

of the watershed, assuming a specific channel shape.

3. A method used to estimate the time of concentration based on the average velocity

of flow in the channel and the length of the channel.

4. A method used to estimate the runoff coefficient based on the soil type, land cover,

and hydrologic condition of the watershed.

5. A method used to estimate peak runoff rates based on the rainfall intensity, runoff

coefficient, and drainage area.

6. The time required for runoff to travel from the most remote point in a catchment

area to the outlet.

7. A dimensionless parameter used in the NRCS method to represent the potential

maximum retention of water in the soil.

8. The initial spread of water over a surface before it concentrates into channels.

9. The movement of water across the land surface, following natural slopes or

depressions.

10. The flow of water through defined channels, such as streams or rivers.

II. True or False:

1. The Rational Method is applicable to all types of catchments, regardless of size or

land use.
 2. The NRCS Curve Number method accounts for the effects of antecedent moisture

conditions.

3. Time of Concentration (TOC) is a measure of the peak runoff rate.

4. The Kerby-Kirpich method is primarily used for large, complex watersheds.

5. The Average Velocity Method assumes a uniform flow velocity throughout the

channel.

6. The SCS CN method is based on empirical data collected from a variety of land

cover types and soil conditions.

7. The FAA method is particularly suitable for small, urban watersheds with simple

topography.

8. The kinematic wave method is a more complex approach that accounts for spatial

and temporal variations in flow velocity and depth.

III. Problem-solving:

1. Solve the time of concentration of an area having a length of 200 ft with a slope of

3% in an unimproved area using FAA Method. (5pts)

2. A small, urban watershed has a drainage area of 2.5 acres, a runoff coefficient of

0.7, and an average rainfall intensity of 2.5 inches per hour. Determine the peak

runoff rate using the Rational Method. (5pts)

3. For the given conditions for a basin, find the runoff using SCS-CN Method (5pts):
• Hydrologic Soil Group A
• Straight Row Crops
• Good Condition
• AMC I
VII. REFERENCES

Inland Transportation Infrastructure Institute (n.d.). Section 2B-4 - Runoff and Peak Flow.

Retrieved from https://intrans.iastate.edu/app/uploads/sites/15/2020/03/2B-4.pdf

Maine.gov (n.d.). Appendix A-1: Runoff Peak Discharge Calculations. Retrieved from

https://www.maine.gov/dep/land/stormwater/stormwaterbmps/vol3/appendixa.pdf

Oregon Department of Transportation (n.d.). Appendix F – Rational Method. Retrieved from

https://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/GeoEnvironmental/Docs_Hydraulics_Manual/Hydraulics-07-

F.pdf

Bennett, J. (2019). Time of Concentration [PowerPoint slides]. SlidePlayer. Retrieved from

https://slideplayer.com/slide/14855786/

WUR eDepot (n.d.). 4.4 The Curve Number Method. Retrieved from https://edepot.wur.nl/183157

Texas Department of Transportation (n.d.). Hydraulic Design Manual: Rational Method. Retrieved

from

http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/TxDOTOnlineManuals/TxDOTManuals/hyd/rational_method.ht

Hydrology Studio (n.d.). Time of Concentration – Learn Hydrology Studio. Retrieved from

https://learn.hydrologystudio.com/hydrology-studio/knowledge-base/time-of-concentration/

Krest Engineers (2021, November 29). Time of Concentration (TOC) Estimation –

RASHMS.COM. Retrieved from https://rashms.com/blog/time-of-concentration-toc-estimation/