DIPLOMA IN SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

(DSLT) II

COURSE CODE: STP 213

COURSE TITLE: CALCULUS FOR SCIENCE

LECTURE NOTES
 LIMIT

A real number L is called the limit of a function in a neighborhood of a point xo, if and
only if 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → xo normally written lim f(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→0

Condition: (for the existence of a limit, L).

A necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of L is that lim f(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→0

2x
To find the limit of a function algebraically, for example: 𝑓(𝑥) = , both the
3x+1

numerator and denominator become infinite when x becomes infinite. To give meaning
to such functions we find, the limiting values as x approaches infinity (the symbols ∞
is called infinity). Dividing both numerator and denominator by x

2𝑥
2𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑓(𝑥) = = 3𝑥 1 = 1 As 𝑥→ ∞
3𝑥+1 + 3𝑥+
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

1
Then → 0
𝑥

2 2 2𝑥
Therefore, in the limit the fraction approaches or . This means that
3+0 3 3𝑥+1
2
approaches the liming value as x approaches infinity written as
3

2𝑥 2
lim =
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥+1 3
Example:

Find the following limits

2𝑥+1 3𝑥 2 +5𝑥−4
(i) lim (x2 + 2) (ii) lim (iii) lim ( )
𝑥→2 𝑥→0 1+𝑥2 𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 2 −𝑥+7

Solutions:

(i) lim (x2 + 2) = (22 + 2) = (4 + 2) = 6

𝑥→2

2𝑥+1 2x0 + 1 0+1 1

(ii) lim = = = =1
𝑥→0 1+𝑥2 1+02 1+0 1

3𝑥 2 +5𝑥−4
(iii) lim ( ) First, divide the top and the bottom by x2 (the highest
𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 2 −𝑥+7

power of x).

3𝑥2 5𝑥 4 5 4
3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4 + 2− 2 3+ − 2
𝑥2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
i.e lim ( ) = lim 5𝑥2
= lim 1 7
𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥+7 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 7
− 2+ 2 𝑥→∞ 5− 𝑥 + 2
𝑥2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

5 4 1 7
As x→ ∞, , , and 𝑥 2 → 0
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥

3+0–0 3
i.e =5
5− 0 + 0
Example 2: Evaluate the following limits

𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑥 2 −4𝑥−5 𝑥2 + 𝑥
(i) lim ( ) (ii) lim ( ) (iii) lim ( )
𝑥→a 𝑥−a 𝑥→5 𝑥−5 𝑥→2 𝑥 2− 𝑥

Solutions:

𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑎)
(i) lim ( ) = lim = lim 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 = 2𝑎
𝑥→a 𝑥−a 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑥 2 −4𝑥−5 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 5)
(ii) lim ( ) = lim = lim 𝑥 + 1 = 5 + 1 = 6
𝑥→5 𝑥−5 𝑥→5 𝑥−5 𝑥→5

𝑥2 + 𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 + 𝑥) (𝑥 + 1) 2+1 3
(iii) lim ( ) = lim = lim = = =3
𝑥→2 𝑥 2− 𝑥 𝑥→2 𝑥(𝑥− 1) 𝑥→2 (𝑥− 1) 2− 1 1

THEOREMS ON LIMITS
Let f and g be continuous function, and c is a real constant.
(i) If f(x) = C a constant function, then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim C = C
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0

Example: lim 2 = 2
𝑥→0

(ii) If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim [𝑎𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑏𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0

= 𝑎lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑏lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑙 ± 𝑏𝑚

𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0
(iii) If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim [𝑓(𝑥) . 𝑔(𝑥)] =
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0

lim 𝑓(𝑥) . lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿𝑚

𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0

CONTINUITY OF FUNCTION

Definition: Let f be given function and x0 is any point in Df. The function f is said to
be continuous at the point x0 if and only if the following conditions are satisfied.

(i) f(x0) exists i.e f is defined at x0

(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists
𝑥→𝑥0

(iii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = f(x0)

𝑥→𝑥0

If any one of these conditions is not satisfies then the function is not continuous at that
point and we say that it is discontinuous at that point.

Example 3:

Show that the function f defined by f(x)=3x2+1 is continuous at x = 0

Solution:

(i) f (0) = 3(0)2 + 1 = 1

Therefore, f (0) exists.

(ii) lim (3x2 + 1) = 0+1

𝑥→0

Thus, lim (3x2 + 1) exists and is equal to 1

𝑥→0

(iii) Hence, lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = f(0)=1

𝑥→0

Therefore, f(x) = 3x2 + 1 is continuous at x = 0

Worked Example 4:

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −4𝑥−4
Find the values of x for which f(x) = is undefined and define f(x) at
𝑥2− 4
each of these points so that it becomes a continuous function in the neighborhood of
these values.

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −4𝑥−4 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −4𝑥−4 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −4𝑥−4

f(x) = = =
𝑥2− 4 𝑥2− 4 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)

0
This fraction takes the form when x = -2 or x = 2 which are the two values that
0
make the function f(x) not to exist/undefined.
∴ the two real numbers are ±2

Let us now define the function f(x) on f(2) and f(-2) so that it becomes continuous.

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −4𝑥−4 (2+ℎ)3 + (2+ℎ)2 −4(2+ℎ)−4

Let x = 2+h = =
(𝑥− 2)(𝑥+ 2) (2+ℎ − 2)(2+ℎ+ 2)

ℎ3 + 6ℎ2 +12ℎ+8+ℎ2 +4ℎ+4−8−4ℎ−4 ℎ3 + 7ℎ2 +12ℎ ℎ2 +7ℎ+12

= = =
ℎ(ℎ+ 4) ℎ(ℎ+ 4) ℎ+ 4

(ℎ+ 3)(ℎ+ 4)
= = ℎ+3
ℎ+ 4

As 𝑥 →2, h→ 0 ∴ lim (ℎ + 3) = 0 + 3 = 3
ℎ→0

∴ f(2) = 3

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −4𝑥−4 (−2+ℎ)3 + (−2+ℎ)2 −4(−2+ℎ)−4

Let x = -2+h = =
(𝑥− 2)(𝑥+ 2) (−2+ℎ − 2)(−2+ℎ+ 2)
 ℎ3 − 6ℎ2 +12ℎ−8+ℎ2 −4ℎ+4+8−4ℎ−4 ℎ3 − 5ℎ2 +4ℎ ℎ2 − 5ℎ+4
= = =
ℎ(ℎ − 4) ℎ(ℎ − 4) ℎ−4

(ℎ − 1)(ℎ− 4)
=ℎ−1
(ℎ− 4)

As 𝑥 → −2, h→ 0 ∴ lim (ℎ − 1) = 0 − 1 = −1
ℎ→0

∴ f(-2) = -1

Example 5:

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −9𝑥−9
The function f(x) = does not exist for two members of real number .
𝑥 2− 9
Find these two members of and defined f(x) at each of these points, so that it
becomes a continuous function.

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −9𝑥−9
f(x) = (Note that = set of real numbers).
𝑥 2− 9

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −9𝑥−9 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −9𝑥−9 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −9𝑥−9

= = =
𝑥2− 9 𝑥 2 − 32 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥− 2)

0
The fraction takes the form of when x = -3 or x = 3 which are the two values that
0
make the function f(x) not to exist.

Therefore, the two real numbers which make the function not to exist are ±3.

We can now define that function f(x) on f(3) and f(-3) so that it becomes continuous.
Let x = 3+h

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −9𝑥−9 (3+ℎ)3 + (3+ℎ)2 −9(3+ℎ)−9

=
(𝑥− 3)(𝑥 + 3) (3+ℎ − 3)(3+ℎ+ 3)

27+27ℎ+ 9ℎ2 +ℎ3 +9+6ℎ+ℎ2 −27−9ℎ−9 12ℎ+10ℎ2 + ℎ3

= =
ℎ(ℎ+6) ℎ(ℎ+ 6)

24+10ℎ+ℎ2 (ℎ+4)(ℎ+6)
= = =ℎ+ 4
ℎ+ 6 (ℎ+ 6)

As 𝑥 → 3, h→ 0 ∴ lim (ℎ + 4) = 4
ℎ→0

∴ f(3) = 4

Let x = -3+h

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −9𝑥−9 (−3+ℎ)3 + (−3+ℎ)2 −9(−3+ℎ)−9

=
(𝑥− 3)(𝑥 + 3) (−3+ℎ − 3)(−3+ℎ+ 3)

−27+27ℎ− 9ℎ2 +ℎ3 +9−6ℎ+ℎ2 +27−9ℎ−9 12ℎ−8ℎ2 + ℎ3

= =
(−6+ℎ)ℎ (ℎ− 6)ℎ

12−8ℎ+ℎ2 (ℎ−2)(ℎ−6)
= = =ℎ−2
ℎ− 6 (ℎ− 6)

lim (ℎ − 2) = −2
ℎ→0

∴ f(-3) = -2
Exercise 2:

1. Find the following limits

(3𝑥+4) 2𝑥 2 +3𝑥−7
(a) lim (𝑥 3 + 1) (b) lim (c) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥→0 4+𝑥 3 𝑥→∞ 6𝑥 2 −𝑥+3

2. Evaluate the following limits

𝑥 2 −4 𝑥 2 −36 𝑥 2 +1
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→6 𝑥−6 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

3. Examine the continuity of the fractions defined by

(a) f(x) = 5x2+2 at x = 0
(b) f(x) = x3+1 at x = 1
(c) f(x) = x2-x-2 at x = 2
𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −4𝑥−4
4. Find the values of x for which f(x)= is undefined and define f(x)
𝑥2 − 4
at each of these points so that it becomes a continuous function in the neighborhood
of these values.
1
5. For what values of x is f(x)= undefined?
1− 𝑥
Describe the behavior of f(x) as x approaches the value from above and from
below.
𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −25𝑥−25
6. For what values of x is f(x)= is undefined?
𝑥 2 − 25
Define f(x) at each of these points so that it becomes a continuous function.
7. Evaluate the following limits
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−15 𝑥 2 −49 6𝑥 2 −11𝑥−10
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim
𝑥→4 𝑥−5 𝑥→10 𝑥+7 𝑥→2 3𝑥−5
 𝑥 2 −81 𝑥 2 −64 𝑥 2 −144
(iv) lim (v) lim (vi) lim
𝑥→5 𝑥−9 𝑥→5 𝑥−8 𝑥→6 𝑥+12

8. Examine the continuity of the functions defined by f(x) 5x2+2 at x=1

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −𝑥−1
9. For what values of x is f(x)= is undefined?
𝑥2 − 1

Define f(x) at each of these points so that it becomes a continuous function.

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −𝑥−1
f(x)=
𝑥2− 1

𝑥3 + 𝑥2 −𝑥−1 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −𝑥−1 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −𝑥−1

therefore
𝑥2 − 1
= =
𝑥 2 − 12 (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)

0
Therefore, the fraction takes the form when x = -1 or x = 1 which are the two values
0
that make the function f(x) undefined. To define the function f(x) on f(1) and f(-1) so
that it becomes continuous.

It becomes continuous.

Let x = 1+h

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −𝑥−1 (1+ℎ)3 + (1+ℎ)2 −(1+ℎ)−1

= =
(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1) (1+ℎ − 1)(1+ℎ+ 1)

ℎ3 − 3ℎ2 +3ℎ−1+ℎ2 +2ℎ+1−1−ℎ−1 ℎ3 + 4ℎ2 +4ℎ ℎ(ℎ2 +4ℎ+4

= = =
ℎ(ℎ+2) ℎ(ℎ+2) ℎ(ℎ+2)

ℎ2 +4ℎ+4 (ℎ+2)(ℎ+2)
= = =ℎ+2
ℎ+2 (ℎ+2)
As 𝑥 → −1, h→ 0 ∴ lim(ℎ + 2) = 0 + 2 = 2
ℎ→0

∴ f(1) = 2

Let x = -1+h

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −𝑥−1 (−1+ℎ)3 + (−1+ℎ)2 −(−1+ℎ)−1

= =
(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1) (−1+ℎ − 1)(−1+ℎ+ 1)

ℎ3 − 3ℎ2 +3ℎ−1+ℎ2 −2ℎ+1+1−ℎ−1 ℎ3 −2ℎ2 ℎ(ℎ2 −2ℎ)

= = =
ℎ(ℎ−2) ℎ(ℎ−2) ℎ(ℎ−2)

ℎ2 −2ℎ ℎ(ℎ−2)
= = =ℎ
ℎ−2 ℎ−2

As 𝑥 → −1, h→ 0 ∴ lim(ℎ) = 0 = 0
ℎ→0

∴ f(-1) = 0
 CALCULUS
Introduction to Differential Calculus
1.1 Introduction:
Differential calculus is also known as differentiation or the mathematics of
change. It measures the rate of change of one variable with respect to the other.

1.2 Differentiation of Polynomials:

Let us consider first Algebraic determination of the slope (gradient) of a curve.
Let P be the point (x, y) on the curve.
Y= 2x2+5 and Q a neighboring point with coordinates (x + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦)

At Q,
𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 = 2(x + 𝛿𝑥)2 +5

= 2(x2 + 2x ∙ 𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 2) +5 = 2x2 + 4x ∙ 𝛿𝑥 + 2𝛿𝑥2 +5

Subtracting y from each side:

𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 − 𝑦 = 2x2 + 4x ∙ 𝛿𝑥 + 2𝛿𝑥2 +5 – (2x2 + 5)

 ∴ 𝛿𝑦 = 2x2 + 4x ∙ 𝛿𝑥 + 2 ∙ 𝛿𝑥 2 +5 – 2x2 – 5

= 4x ∙ 𝛿𝑥 + 2 ∙ 𝛿𝑥2

𝛿𝑦
Divide both sides by 𝛿𝑥 i.e = 4x + 2 ∙ 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑥

𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦
If Q moves up to P, 𝛿𝑥 → 0 and then →
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥

𝛿𝑦
∴ = 4x
𝛿𝑥

𝛿𝑦
At x =1.5, = 4(1.5) = 6
𝛿𝑥

∴ the slope of the curve y = 2x2 + 5 at x = 1.5 is 6

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
The process of determining the expression for is called differentiation and
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
is termed the differential coefficient of y with respect to x.

Differentiation from first principles:

Differentiation from first principles means finding the ratio of the

incremental change in a function y of x to the incremental change in x and
then finding its limiting value as x approaches zero.
Example 1:

Differentiate from first principles, y = x3 + 2x

Solution:
y = x3 + 2x
𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 = (x + 𝛿𝑥)3 + 2(x + 𝛿𝑥)
= x3 + 3x2(𝛿𝑥)+3x(𝛿𝑥)2+(𝛿𝑥)3 + 2x +2(𝛿𝑥)

Subtracting y from each side.

𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 − 𝑦 = x3 + 3x2(𝛿𝑥)+ 3x (𝛿𝑥)2+(𝛿𝑥)3+2x+2(𝛿𝑥) – (x3 + 2𝑥)

𝛿𝑦 = 3x2(𝛿𝑥)+ 3x(𝛿𝑥)2+ 2(𝛿𝑥) +(𝛿𝑥)3

Divide through by 𝛿𝑥:

𝛿𝑦
= 3𝑥 2+3x(δ𝑥)+2+(𝛿𝑥)2
𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑦 𝑑𝑦
∴ lim = 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥2 + 2
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

Example 2: differentiate from first principles y = 2x2+5

Solution

y = 2x2+5

𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 = 2(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 )2+5

= 2(x+2x∙δx+ δx2) + 5

= 2x2+4x∙δx+2x∙δx2+5
Subtracting y from each side

𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 − 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2+4x ∙ (δ𝑥)+2∙ 𝛿𝑥2 +5 – (2x2+5)

𝛿𝑦 = 4x ∙ (δ𝑥)+2∙ 𝛿𝑥 2

Divide both sides by 𝛿𝑥

𝛿𝑦
= 4x +2 ∙ 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑥

𝛿𝑦 𝑑𝑦
If 𝛿𝑦 → 0,
𝛿𝑥
→ 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 4x

Differentiation of Certain Functions

1. Differentiation of a constant: The differentiation of a constant is zero.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
Example: If y = 7 ∴
𝑑𝑥
= 0 or (C) = 0 Where C is a constant.
𝑑𝑥

2. Differentiation of ax, where a is a constant consider the equation y = ax.

𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
(𝑎𝑥 ) = 𝑎 or
𝑑𝑥
=𝑎

Example: find the derivative of (i) 7x (ii) 5x

𝑑 𝑑𝑦
(i)
𝑑𝑥
(7𝑥 ) = 7 or
𝑑𝑥
=7
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
(ii)
𝑑𝑥
(5𝑥 ) = 5 or
𝑑𝑥
=5
3. Differentiation of axn, where a and n are real numbers, negative or positive.
𝑑𝑦
Example: y = axn, = anx n-1
𝑑𝑥

Example: Differentiate:

(i) 3x3 (ii) 5x2 (iii) 4x-4

Solution:
𝑑
(i) = (3x3) = 3(3x3-1) = 9x2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
(ii) = 5(2x2-1) = 10x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(iii) = 4(- 4x-4-1) = -16x-5
𝑑𝑥

We should note that the operation ‘differentiation’ is distributive across addition and
subtraction functions.

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
i.e
𝑑𝑥
[f(x) + g(x)] = [ f(x) + g(x)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example: Differentiate with respect to x, the following:

(i) x3+2x2+3x (ii) x2+3x-2 (iii) 4x4-3x2+5

Solution:

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(i) = (x3+2x2+3x) = (x3) + 𝑑𝑥 (2x2) - (3x)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 3x2+4x+3

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(ii) = (x2+3x-2) = (x2) + (3x) - (2) = 2x+3-0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 2x+3
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(iii) = ( 4x4-3x2+5) = (4x4) - (3x2) + (5)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 16x3-6x+0 = 16x3 – 6x

NB: there are some functions that can be reduced to their simplest forms or terms
before differentiating.

Examples: Differentiate: (i) x2(4x – 2) (ii) (x+3)(x-4)

5𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2
(iii)
𝑥2

Solution:

(i) x2(4x – 2) = 4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2

𝑑
𝑑𝑥
= (4x3 – 2x2) = 12x2 – 4x

(ii) (x+3)(x – 4) = x2 – 4x+3x – 12 = x2 – x+12

𝑑
𝑑𝑥
= (x2 – x – 12) = 2x – 1
 3
5𝑥 + 3𝑥2 5𝑥 3 3𝑥 2
(𝐢𝐢𝐢)
𝑥2
= + = 5x + 3
𝑥2 𝑥2

𝑑
= (5𝑥 + 3) = 5
𝑑𝑥

The Chain Rule:

The expansion process leads to laborious multiplication when something

like (2 x +3)7 is met. We can use chain rule to differentiate a function of this type.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
The chain rule states that:
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
x 𝑑𝑥
where y is a function of t and t is itself a

function of x

Example 1: Differentiate (3x +4)7

Let y = (3x +4)7 and t = 3x +4 then y = t7

𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
∴
𝑑𝑥
= 3, 𝑑𝑡
= 7t6

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒕
Using chain rule = 𝐱 = 7t6 x 3
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

= 21(3x+4)6

Example 2: Differentiate (x2 +3x)5

Let y = (x2 +3x)5and t = x2 +3x then y = t5

𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
∴
𝑑𝑥
= 2x +3, 𝑑𝑡
= 5t4
 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒕
Using chain rule
𝒅𝒙
= 𝒅𝒙
𝐱 𝒅𝒙
= 5t4
(2x +3)

=5(2x +3) (x2 +3x)4

Exercise 1:

Differentiate with respect to x

1. 3x2 – 7x 2. 5+ 3x – 2x2 3. (x – 3) (2x +5)

4. (x – 4)2 5. x -2(1+x) 6. 3x4 – 2x3 + x2 – x +10

1 3 1 2 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2
4
7. 2x + x – x +2 8. 2x (3x – 4)
2
9.
3 4 3𝑥
10𝑥 −5 +3𝑥 4
10. 11. (3x2 + 5)3 12. (3 – 4x)-3
2𝑥2

13. (3x2 + 5x)2

Answers:

1. 6x – 7 2. 3 – 4x 3. 4x +1
4. 2x – 8 5. -2x-3 –x-2 6. 12x3 – 6x +2x – 1
1
7. 8x3 + x2 – x 8. 18x2 – 8 9. 12x – 3
2
8. -140x-8 +12x 11. 18x(3x2 + 5)2 12. 12(3 – 4x)-4

13. (18x2 + 10) (3x2 + 5x)

Derivative of Product of Functions (Product Rule)

Given that y = uv, where u and v are functions of x, then the product rule states
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒕
that: = 𝑉 𝒅𝒙 + 𝑈 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙

We can use the fundamental ideas of differentiation to prove the above formula as
follows:

Let y be the product of 2 functions u and v of a variable x.

Then y = uv, and 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 = (𝑢 + 𝛿𝑢)(𝑣 + 𝛿𝑣 )

Where a small increment 𝜹𝒙 in x produces increments 𝜹𝒖 in 𝒖, 𝜹𝒗 in 𝒗 and 𝜹𝒚 in

𝒚.

𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣𝛿𝑢 + 𝑢𝛿𝑣 + 𝛿𝑢𝛿𝑣 and since y = uv, subtracting y from

both sides.

𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 − 𝑦= 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣𝛿𝑢 + 𝑢𝛿𝑣 + 𝛿𝑢𝛿𝑣 − 𝑢𝑣

𝛿𝑦 = 𝑣𝛿𝑢 + 𝑢𝛿𝑣 + 𝛿𝑢𝛿𝑣

Dividing through by 𝛿𝑥

𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑢
= 𝑉 +𝑈 + x 𝛿𝑣
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥

As 𝛿𝑥 → 0, 𝛿𝑢, 𝛿𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿𝑦 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 0

𝛿𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝛿𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝛿𝑣 𝑑𝑣
→ , → , →
𝛿𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑈 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 x 0
𝑑𝑥

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
∴ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑽 𝒅𝒙 + 𝑼 𝒅𝒙

Example 1: Differentiate with respect to x

y = (2x2 +3) (7x3 +5x)

Let U = 2x2 +3 and V = 7x3 +5x

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 4𝑥 and = 21x2+5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
∴
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑈 𝑑𝑥 = (7x3 +5x)4𝑥 +(2x2 +3)(21x2+5)

= 28x4 +20x2+42x4 +10x2+63x2+15

= 28x4 +42x4+20x2 +10x2+63x2+15

= 70x4 +93x2+15

Example 2: Differentiate the expression y = (x2 – 3)(x +1)2 and simplify the result.

Let U = x2 – 3 and V = (x +1)2

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 2𝑥 and = 2(x+1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
∴
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑈 𝑑𝑥 = 2x(x+1)2+2(x+1)(x2 – 3)
Factorizing

= 2(x+1)[x(x+1)+(x2 – 3)]

= 2(x+1)[ x2+ x + x2 – 3]

= 2(x+1)( 2x2+ x – 3)

= 2(x+1)( 2x+3)(x – 1)

This formula is perhaps most easily done in words. To differentiate the product of two
factors, differentiate the first factor, leaving the second one alone and the differentiate
the second, leaving the first one alone, and it is necessary to remember also that,
should one of the factors in the product be a composite function, its derivative must be
found as carefully as possible before insertion in this product formula.

Derivative of a Quotient (Quotient Rule)

𝑢
Given that 𝑦=
𝑣
, where u and v are functions of x, then

𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
𝒅𝒚 𝑽 𝒅𝒙 − 𝑼𝒅𝒙
=
𝒅𝒙 𝒗𝟐

These formulas for quotients correspond to that for product and it is proved in a similar
way. You can prove it on your own.

2𝑥+1
Example 1: Find the derivative of 𝑦 =
𝑥 2 +2

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
Let U = 2x+1 and V = x2+2
𝑑𝑥
=2 and
𝑑𝑥
= 2x
 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑉 −𝑈 2(𝑥 2 +2)− 2𝑥(2𝑥+1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2 =
(𝑥 2 +2)2
𝑑𝑥 𝑣

2𝑥 2 +4 − 4𝑥 2 −2𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 −2𝑥 2
= =
(𝑥 2 +2)2 (𝑥 2 +2)2

(𝑥 −3)2
Example 2: Differentiate
(𝑥+2)2

(𝑥−3)2
Find the derivative of
(𝑥+2)2

(𝑥−3)2
Let 𝑦 = and let U = (𝑥 − 3)2 and V = (𝑥 + 2)2
(𝑥+2)2

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 2(𝑥 − 3) and = 2(x +2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑉 −𝑈 (𝑥+2)2 X 2(𝑥−3)− (𝑥−3)2 X 2(𝑥+2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= =
(𝑥+2)4
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2

2(𝑥+2)(𝑥−3)[(𝑥+2) − (𝑥−3)] 2(𝑥+2)(𝑥−3)[𝑥+2−𝑥+3]

= =
(𝑥+2)4 (𝑥+2)4

2(𝑥+2)(𝑥−3) X 5 10(𝑥−3)
= =
(𝑥+2)4 (𝑥+2)3
 𝑥 2 +1
Example 3: Differentiate the expression 𝑦 = and simplify the result.
(𝑥+3)2

Let U = 𝑥 2 + 1 and V = (𝑥 + 3)2

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 2𝑥 and = 2(x +3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑉 –𝑈 2𝑥(𝑥+3)2 −2(𝑥+3)(𝑥 2 +1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2 =
(𝑥+3)4
𝑑𝑥 𝑣

Factorizing

2(𝑥+3)[𝑥(𝑥+3) − (𝑥 2 +1)] 2(𝑥+3)(𝑥 2 +3𝑥−𝑥 2 −1)

= =
(𝑥+3)4 (𝑥+3)4

2(𝑥+3)(3𝑥−1) 2(3𝑥−1)
= =
(𝑥+3)4 (𝑥+3)3

Exercise 2:

Differentiate with respect to x the following functions.

2 -2 𝑥 2 +1
1. (x +1)(x+3) 2. 3. x2(x+1)3
(𝑥+3)2

1−𝑥 2 1
4. 5. (1+x2)2(1+x2) 6. x2(1 - )
1+𝑥 2 √𝑋

Answer:

2(3𝑥−1) 2(3𝑥−1)
1. 2. 3. x(5x+2)(x+1)2
(𝑥+3)2 (𝑥+3)2
−4𝑥
4.
(1+𝑥 2 )2
 Gradient, and Equations of Tangent and Normal Gradient of a Curve

If the equation of a curve is given then the gradient at any point A on the curve can be
found by determining the limit of the gradient of a chord AB, as B tends to coincide
with

Let A(x,y) be a point

on the curve and B(x+ 𝛿𝑥, y+𝛿𝑦) be a neighboring point, where 𝜹𝒙 is the increment in

x in moving from A to B and 𝜹𝒚, the corresponding increment in 𝒚 as shown in the

above diagram.

𝛿𝑦 2 1
The gradient of the chord AB is at the point on 𝑦 = where the gradient is ,
𝛿𝑥 𝑥2 2

the x coordinate is –2.

2 2 2 1
When x = –2, 𝑦 = = 2= =
𝑥2 (−2) 4 2

1
∴ x= -2 and 𝑦 =
2
 2 1 1
Therefore the gradient of 𝑦 = is at the point (-2, )
𝑥2 2 2

Equations of Tangents and Normals

Since we can now find the gradient of curve at a given point what we can do next is to
find the equation of the tangent or normal to the curve at that point.

Example 3:

Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x2 – 3x+2 at the point where is cuts
the y-axis.

Note that y = x2 – 3x+2

cuts the y – axis where x = 0, y = 2

i.e when x = 0, y = (0)2 – 3(0)+2 = 2

𝑑𝑦
The gradient of the curve at A is the limit of this ratio as 𝛿𝑥 → 0 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
Example 1: Find the gradient of the curve y = (x – 3) (x2 + 2) at the point on the
curve where x = 1.

y = (x – 3) (x2 + 2) = x3 - 3x2 + 2x – 6
𝑑𝑦
= 3x2 - 6x + 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
when x = 1, = 3(1)2 - 6(1) + 2 = 3 – 6 + 2 = -1
𝑑𝑥

Therefore the gradient of y = (x – 3) (x2 + 2) is –1 at the point where x = 1.

2 1
Example 2: Find the coordinate of the on the curve y = at which its gradient is
𝑥2 2

2
y= = 2x-2
𝑥2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
= -4x-3 when =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

1 −4
∴ -4x-3 = =
2 𝑥−3

1
= = x3 = -8
2

then x = -2

𝑑𝑦
The gradient of the tangent at (0,2) is the value when x = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
∴ y = x2 – 3x + 2 = 2x – 3
𝑑𝑥
When x = 0, the gradient of the curve = 2(0) – 3 = -3

Therefore the tangent has gradient –3 and passes through (0,2)

∴ the equation of the tangent is y = -3x + 2

i.e 3x + y – 2 = 0

1
Example 4: Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = at the point on the
𝑥
curve where x = 2. Find the coordinates of the point where the normal cuts the curve
again.

1
y=𝑥 = x-1

𝑑𝑦 1
= -x-2 = −
𝑥2
𝑑𝑥
when x = 2

𝑑𝑦 1 1 1
𝑑𝑥
=− 2 = − 14 and y=𝑥 =
(2) 2

1 1
∴ the tangent at (2, ) has gradient −
2 4

the normal (i.e the line perpendicular to the tangent) has gradient 4.

1
∴ the equation of this normal is y - 2 = 4 (x -2) or

8x – 2y – 15 = 0 - - - - - - equation (1)

Solve this equation simultaneously to get the point of intersection of the normal and
the curve.

8x – 2y – 15 = 0 - - - - - - equation (1)

1
Note that: y = - - - - - - equation (2)
𝑥

2
∴ 8x – – 15 = 0
𝑥

Multiply through by x

8x – 15x – 2 = 0 - - - - - - equation (3)

(8x +1) (x – 2) = 0

We already know that the equations 1 and 2 cut where x = 2

 1
Therefore equations (1) and (2) cut again where x=–𝑥

1 1 −8
∴y= 𝑥
= 1 =1x 1
= -8
–
8

1
i.e at the point (- , -8)
8

Exercise:

1. Find the gradient of the given curve at the given point on the curve.
(a) y = x2 – 3 where x = 1
(b) y = (x2 – 3)(x + 1) where x = -1
(c) y = 3x2 – 2 where x = 3
1
(d) y = where x = 3
𝑥

Answers:

1
(a) 2 (b) -1 (c) 18 (d) -
9
2. Find the equation of the tangent to the given curve at the given point on the curve.

(a) y = x2 – 2 where x = 1

(b) y = x2 + 3x - 1 where x = 0

Answers:
(a) y = 2x – 3 (b) 3x – y – 1= 0
3. Find the equations of the normal to the curve y = x2 + 3x – 2 at the point where
the curve cuts the y – axis.

Answer: x + 3y +6 = 0
Stationary, Maximum and Minimum Points

𝑑𝑦
A point on a curve at which = 0, is called a stationary point. The values of x when
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2𝑦
Will be inserted in the result obtained for , and those giving a negative value of
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦 2

𝑑𝑥 2
will give maximum value ( i.e
𝑑 𝑦
𝑑𝑥2
<0 ) of the function and those giving
𝑑2 𝑦 2
positive values of
𝑑𝑥 2
will give minimum values ( i.e
𝑑 𝑦
𝑑𝑥2
>0 ) of the function.
𝑑2 𝑦
We should note that if =0
𝑑𝑥 2

It will be difficult for us to conclude whether or not it is a minimum or maximum point

which exists.

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
Therefore must not be zero i.e ≠0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2

Example 1: find the stationary values of y = x3 – 3x2 + 2

Let y = x3 – 3x2 + 2

𝑑𝑦
≡ 3x3 – 6x
𝑑𝑥
 𝑑𝑦
At stationary values of y, =0
𝑑𝑥

∴ 3x3 – 6x = 0

Divide through by the 3, we have

x2 – 2x = 0

= x(x – 2) = 0

either x=0 or x–2=0

i.e stationary values of x3 – 3x2 + 2 occur when x=0 and when x = 2. These
stationary values are:

If x=0

y = (0)3 – 3(0)2 + 2 = 2

If x=2

y = (2)3 – 3(2)2 + 2 = -2

The curve y = x3 – 3x2 + 2

𝑑𝑦
= 3x2 – 6x = 0,
𝑑𝑥

when x = 0 or x=2

∴ the gradient of y = x3 – 3x2 + 2 is zero at the points (0, 2) and (2, -2)
Example 2: Differentiate the maximum and minimum values of the function

y = 2x3 + x2 – 4x + 1

𝑑𝑦
= 6x2 + 2x – 4
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
= 12x + 2
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦
At turning point =0
𝑑𝑥

i.e 6x2 + 2x – 4 = 0

Dividing through by 2, we have

3x2 + x – 2 = 0

Factorizing (3x – 2) (x + 1) = 0

either 3x – 2 = 0 or x+ 1 = 0

2
x= , or x=- 1
3

𝑑2𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥 2
= 12 (3
)
+2 = 8+2 = 10 > 0 a minimum point exists.

∴ y = 2x3 + x2 – 4x + 1 = 2(23)3+ (23)2 – 4(23) + 1 = −17

27

2 −17
Therefore ( , ) is a minimum turning point.
3 27

𝑑𝑦
When x = -1, =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
= 12x + 2
𝑑𝑥 2

= 12(-1) +2 = -12+2

= - 10 > 0 a minimum point exists.

∴ y = 2x3 + x2 – 4x + 1 = 2(−1)3+ (−1)2 – 4(−1) + 1 = 4

Therefore (-1, 4) is a maximum turning point.

Exercise:

1. Find the turning point on the curve of y = 2x3 – 9x2 + 12x and distinguish
between the maximum and minimum values.
2. Find the stationary values of the function y = x2(3+2x – 3x2) and investigate
their nature.
3. Find the maximum or minimum value of the function y = 2x2 – 6x + 3
4. Determine the coordinates of the turning points of the curve y = 3 – x + x2

Answers:

1. A maximum point is (1, 5)

A minimum point is (2, 4)
5
2. O min, max, 2 max.
16
3. A maximum turning point (-1, 4)
1 3
4. ( , 2 )
2 4
Differentiation of the Trigonometric Functions:

1. Differentiate: (a) sin 𝑥 (b) sin 𝑎 𝑥 (c) cos 𝑥 (d) cos 𝑎 𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
(a) (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 (b) (sin 𝑎𝑥) = 𝑎cos 𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
(c) (cos 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 (d) (cos 𝑎 𝑥) = −𝑎sin 𝑎 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1
2. Differentiate: (a) sin 2𝑥 (b) 3cos 𝑥
2 2
𝑑 1 1
(a) ( sin 2𝑥) = 2 cos 2𝑥 = cos 2x
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝑑 1 1 −3 1
(b) (3cos 12 𝑥) =- x 3 sin 𝑥 = sin x
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2 2

Exercise:
1
Differentiate: (a) cos6𝑥 (b) sin 8 𝑥 (c) − sin6 𝑥 (d) 6cos 4 𝑥
2
2 1
(e) sin 𝑥
3 2
Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions
In this section, we should first recall the following trigonometric identities.

sin𝑥 cos𝑥
tan x = , cot x =
cos𝑥 sin𝑥

1 1
sec x = , cosec x =
cos𝑥 sin𝑥

cos2x+sin2x = 1
 Let us now obtain the derivative of tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x.

𝒅
1. Shows that (tan x) = sec2 x
𝒅𝒙

sin𝑥
tan x =
cos𝑥

sin𝑥
Let y = , U = sinx and V= cosx
cos𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑉 –𝑈 cos𝑥∙cos𝑥−sin𝑥∙(−sin𝑥) cos2 𝑥+sin2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2 = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 cos2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥

1
= = sec 2 𝑥
cos2 𝑥

𝑑
∴ (tanx) = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝒅 𝟐
2. Prove that (cot x) = −𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙
𝒅𝒙

cos𝑥
cosx = sin𝑥

cos𝑥
Let y = sin𝑥 , U = cos𝑥 and V= sin𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= -sinx and = cosx
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑉 –𝑈 sin𝑥∙(−sin𝑥)−cos𝑥∙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 −sin2 𝑥−cos2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2 = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 sin2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥
 −(sin2 𝑥+cos2 𝑥)
= sin2 𝑥

1
= - sin2 𝑥 = - cosec 2 𝑥

𝑑
∴ 𝑑𝑥(cot x) = - cosec 2 𝑥

𝟏 𝒅
3. If sec x = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 , prove that 𝒅𝒙 (𝐬𝐞𝐜𝒙) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝒙𝐭𝐚𝐧𝒙

1
secx = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

1
Let y = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 , U = 1 and V= cos𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
=0 and = - sinx
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑉 –𝑈 cos𝑥∙0−1.(−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) sin𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2 cos2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥

sin𝑥 1
= cos𝑥 x cos𝑥 = tanxsecx

= secxtanx

d
∴ d𝑥 sec𝑥 = secx tanx

d
4. Shows that (𝑐𝑜sec𝑥) = - cosecxcotx
d𝑥
 1
cosecx = sin𝑥

1
Let y = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 , U = 1 and V= sin𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑥
=0 and 𝑑𝑥
= cosx

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑦 𝑉 –𝑈 sin𝑥∙0−1.(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) −cos𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2 = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 sin2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
= - sin𝑥 x sin𝑥 = -cosecx cotx

d
= d𝑥
(𝑐𝑜sec𝑥) = -cosecxcotx
 INTEGRATION

When x2 is differentiated with respect to x the derived function is 2x i.e is

d
(x2) = 2x. Conversely, given that an unknown function has a derived function of
d𝑥

2x, it is clear that the unknown function could be x2. This process of finding a
function from its derived function is called integration and it reverses the operation if
differentiation.

The Constant of Integration

d d
Let us consider the functions x2+2 and x2-7. Then (x2+1) = 2x and (x2-7) = 2x
d𝑥 d𝑥

This show that 2x is the differential, not only of x2, but also of x2 plus any

constant. Therefore, the result of integrating 2x is of the form x2+k where k is

called the constant of integration.

∫ 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = x2+k, where ∫ … … . . 𝑑𝑥 means “the integral of - - - - w.r.t x

3𝑥 2+1 3𝑥 3
(i) ∫ 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑘= + k = 𝑥3 + 𝑘
2+1 3
1
(ii) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥3 + 𝑘
3
𝑥 7+1 1
(iii) ∫ 𝑥 7 𝑑𝑥 = + k = 𝑥8 + 𝑘
7+1 8

In general, since differentiating 𝑥 𝑛+1 w.r.t x gives (n+1)xn, we have.

𝟏
∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒏+𝟏
𝒙𝒏+𝟏 + 𝒌

i.e integrate a power of x, increase the power by 1 and divide by the new power.
Example:

1 1
(i) ∫ 𝑥 −4 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥 −4+1 + 𝑘 = − 𝑥 −3 + 𝑘
3 3
1 3
1 +1 3
𝑥2 𝑥2 2
(ii) ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 1 + 𝑘= 3 + k = 3 𝑥 +k 2
+1
2 2

Integrating a Constant, C

The result of differentiating Cx is C ∴ ∫ C 𝑑𝑥 = C𝑥 + 𝑘

Integrating Cxn

Differentiating C𝑥 𝑛+1 gives (n+1)(C)xn

∫(𝑛 + 1)(C)𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = C𝑥 𝑛+1 + 𝑘

𝑪
∴ ∫ 𝑪𝒙𝒏 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙𝒏+𝟏 + 𝒌
𝒏+𝟏

1 3
Example 1: ∫(𝑥 5 + + √𝑥 ) dx
𝑥3

1 1
= ∫(𝑥 5 + 𝑥 −3 + 𝑥3 ) dx
3
∫(𝑥 5 + 𝑥3
+ √𝑥 ) dx

1
5 −3
=∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥

4
1 1 3
= 𝑥 6 − 𝑥 −2 + 𝑥 3 + C
6 2 4

Example 2: ∫(6√𝑥−3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 −2 + 2) dx
 1
3 −2 −2
∫(6√𝑥−3𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2) dx =∫ 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 3 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 dx
3
2 1
= 6 ∙ 𝑥 − 3 ∙ 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 −1 + 2𝑥 + C
2
3 4

3
3
= 4𝑥 − 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 −1 + 2𝑥 + C
2
4

Integration (ax +b)n

Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) ≡ (3𝑥 + 2)5 . First we can differentiate 𝑓(𝑥) by using
substitution.

U ≡ (3x+2) then 𝑓(𝑥) = U5

𝑑 5
𝑑𝑥
(3𝑥 + 2) = (5)(3)(3x+2)4

∴ ∫(5)(3)(3x+2)4 dx = (3x+2)5 + C

1 1
Or = ∫(3x+2)4 dx = (5)(3)
(3x+2)5
+ C = 15
(3x+2)5

𝟏
Therefore ∫(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝒏 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒏+𝟏(𝒂)
(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝒏+𝟏

Example:

1 1
1. ∫(5𝑥 − 2)5 𝑑𝑥 = (6)(5)
(5𝑥 − 2)6 + C = (5𝑥 − 2)6 + C
30

1 1
2. ∫(3 − 4𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = (3)(−4)
(3 − 4𝑥)3 + C = − (3 − 4𝑥)3 + C
12
 1 1 1 1 1 −1 1 1
3. ∫( − 𝑥)6 𝑑𝑥 = −1 ( − 𝑥)7 = 7 ( − 𝑥)7 + C
2 4 (7)( ) 2 4 2 4
4 4

−4 1 1
∴ = ( − 𝑥)7
7 2 4

Exercise 1:
1
1 3 1
1. 5x3+x-2+10 2. 𝑥 2 - 3. + − 𝑥4
√𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
1 3
4. 6x-2+x-4+ 5. √𝑥 - 4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 −2 + 8
𝑥2

Answer:
3 1
5 2 1
1. 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 −1 + 10𝑥 + C 2. 𝑥2 − 𝑥2 + C
4 3 2

1 1 1
3. −3𝑥 −1 − 𝑥 −2 − 𝑥 5 + C 4. −6𝑥 −1 − 𝑥 −3 − 𝑥 −1 + C
2 5 3

4
9
5. 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 −1 + 8𝑥 + C
2

Definite integrals

F(x) is some anti – derivate of the continuous function f(x) then

𝒃 𝒃
∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝑭(𝒃) − 𝑭(𝒂) = holds. This is called a definite integral.
𝒂

5 1 5 5
Example 1: Evaluate ∫2 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = [4 x 𝑥 4 + C ] = [𝑥 4 + C ]
4 2 2

= (54 + C) – (24 + C)
= 625 + C – 16 – C
= 625 -16
= 609
 3 1 3
Example 2: Evaluate ∫2 (3𝑥 2 + 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 ]
2 2
1 1
= (33 + x 32 + C) – (23 + x 22 + C)
2 2

1 1
= (27 + x 9 + C) – (8 + x 4 + C)
2 2

9
= (27 + + C − (8 + 2 + C)
2

1
= 27 + 4 + C − 10 − C
2

1 1
= 31 − 10 = 21
2 2

3 1 3
Example 3: ∫1 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = [3 x 𝑥 3 + C]
3 1

3
= [ 𝑥 3 + C]
1

= (33 + C) – (13 + C)

= 27 + C − 1 − C

= 27 − 1

= 26

AREA BY INTEGRATION

Example 1: find the area under the curve y = 3x2 + x between the ordinates x = 2
and x = 3

𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑥
= 3x2 + x
 𝑑𝐴 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫2 (3𝑥2 + 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

3 1 3
A = ∫2 (3𝑥 2 + 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2]
2 2
1 1
= (33 + x 32 + C) – (23 + x 22 + C)
2 2

9 4
= (27 + + C) – (8 + + C)
2 2

1
= 27 + 4 + C − (8 + 2 + C)
2

1 1
= 31 + C − 10 − C = 21 sq unit.
2 2