A GROUP is a set of elements, with one Solution: We will apply the four properties to Natural Numbers/Counting Numbers.

operation, that satisfies the following test the set of all integers under addition is a Positive number from 1 to Infinity. No 0, no
properties: (i) the set is closed with respect to group or not a group. fractions, no decimal
the operation, (ii) the operation satisfies the N = {1,2,3,4,...}
Step 1. To test for closure property, we choose
associative property, (iii) there is an identity
the positive integers for example, 8 + 4 = 12 Whole Numbers. 0 and counting numbers
element, and (iv) element has an inverse.
and 5 + 10 =15. Notice that the sum of two
A GROUP is an ordered pair (G,*) where G is a numbers of the set, the result is always an W = {0,1,2,3,4,…}
set and * is binary operation on G satisfying the element of the set. Thus, it is closed. Integers. Counting numbers, inverse
four properties. (negative), and 0
Step 2. To test the associativity property, we
1. Closure Property. If any two elements are choose three positive integers, for example. 3 Z = {…,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,…}
combined using the operation, the result must + (2 + 4) = 3 + 6 = 9.
be an element of the set. a*b = c∈G, for all a, (3 + 2) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9. Rational Numbers. Fractions, ALL integers,
b, c ∈G. decimals, 0, inverse
Step 3. To test for identity property, we choose
2. Associative Property. any positive integer, for example. Q = {−12,0.33333…,52,1110,…}
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c), for all a,b,c ∈ G. (3 + 4) a. 8 + 0 = 8 0r 0 + 8 = 8
Irrational Numbers. Never ends or repeats
+ 5 = 3 + (4 + 5) b. 9 + 0 = 9
decimal form, cannot be a ratio or a fraction
c. 10 + 0 = 10.
3. Identity Property. There exists an element F = {...,π,2–√,0.121221222...}
Step 4. To test for inverse property, we choose
e in G, such that for all a ∈ G, a * e = e * a = a
any positive integer, for example Real Numbers. Rational and irrational
4. Inverse Property. For each a ∈ G there is 4 + (-4) = 0; numbers, ALL numbers in the number line
an element a-1 of G, such that 10 + (-10) = 0;
23 + (-23) = 0 No inverse. R = {...,−3,−1,0,15,1.1,2–√,2,3,π,…}
a * a-1 = a-1 * a = e.
Note that a-1 = -a. Thus, it does not satisfy the
Example 1. Determine whether the set of all
inverse property. Thus, the set of all positive
non-negative integers under addition is a
integers under addition is not a group, since it
group.
does not satisfy the four properties.
Note: non-negative, positive but include 0.

NUMBERS Language serves as a tool for teaching

mathematical concepts.
Set theory is the branch of mathematics that A is a proper subset of B, written as A⊂B, if Function = a relation in which, for each value
studies set or mathematical science of the there is at least one element of B not in A, of the first component of the ordered pairs,
infinite. where A is not = B. there is exactly one value of the second
- in 1870s, introduced by George Cantor component. the set x is called the domain of
Union – write all elements of sets A and B the function. For each element of x in x, the
(1845-1918)
Intersection – write the element/s present in corresponding element y in Y is called the
Set = well-defined collection of objects; the both sets value of the function at x, or the image of x.
objects are called the elements or members The set of all integers of the elements of the
of the set, separated by comma The difference of A and B (or relative domain is called the range of the function.
- Tabulation method (Roster method) complement of B with respect to A) denoted A
B = elements in A not in B. B prime BINARY OPERATION. Let G be a set. A binary
- Set Builder Notation (Rule method)
operation on G is a function that assigns each
symmetric difference as the set consisting of ordered pair of element of G. Symbolically, a*b
A finite set is a set whose elements are
= c, for all a,b,c ∈ G.
both A and B, denoted by A ⊕ B
all elements that belong to A or to B but not
limited or countable, and the last element can
be identified. Ex. 1. Addition on the set of rational numbers
Infinite set is a set whose elements are disjoint (or non-intersecting) if and only if, Q.
unlimited or uncountable, and the last element they have no elements in common.
cannot be specified. Take two elements of Q and add. ½ + 1/3 =
Symbolically: A and B are disjoint.
Unit set is a set with only one element, it is 5/6
also called singleton. In the ordered pair (a,b), a is called the first
component and b is called the second ½, 1/3 ∈Q and 5/ 6 ∈ Q, therefore

denoted by ∅ or { }
Empty set = unique set with no elements, it is
component. In general, (a,b) ≠ (b,a). For addition on the set of rational number Q is
Binary.
Universal set = any application of set theory example, (2,5) = (9-7,2+3) while (2,5) ≠(5 , 2)
is assumed to be contained in this large, fixed
The cartesian product of sets A and B,
set. Denoted by the symbol “U”.
Cardinal number of a set is the number of written AxB, is AxB = {(a,b)l a ∈ A and b ∈B}.
elements or members in the set, The A = {2,3,5} and B = {7,8}. To get AxB, we pair
cardinality of set A is denoted by n(A) each element of A with element of B. The
results as ordered pairs, with each element of A CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL
written first and the element of B written LANGUAGE
second such as AxB = {(2,7), (2,8), (3,7), (3,8),
A is a subset of B, written as A⊆B if and only if Mathematical language is the system
(5,7), (5,8)}.
every element of A is also an element of B. used to communicate mathematical ideas. This
Symbolically, A⊆B A relation is a set of ordered pairs. language consists of some natural language
using technical terms (mathematical terms)
and grammatical conventions that are either using numbers, variables, or a (implies), ↔ (if and only if), ≈
uncommon to mathematical discourse, combination of both. A mathematical sentence (approximately), ∴ (therefore), etc.
supplemented by a highly specialized symbolic can also use symbols or words like equals,
notation for mathematical formulas. greater than, or less than. A mathematical Typographical conventions in
sentence is a correct arrangement of mathematics provide uniformity across
The characteristic of mathematical mathematical texts and help individuals to
mathematical symbols that states a complete
language is being precise, concise, and grasp new concepts quickly. Mathematical
thought and can be determined whether it’s
powerful. Mathematical language must be notation includes letters from various
true, false, sometimes true/sometimes false.
concise or show simplicity. Being concise is a alphabets, as well as special mathematical
strong part of the culture in mathematical CONVENTION IN THE MATHEMATICAL symbols. Letters in various fonts often have
language. The mathematician desires the LANGUAGE specific, fixed meanings in particular areas of
simplest possible single exposition at the price mathematics. In general, anything that
Mathematical language has conventions
of additional terminology and machinery to represents a variable should be set in Italic and
and helps individuals distinguish between
allow all the of the various particularities to be this applies to characters from Latin/English
different types of mathematical expressions. A
subsumed into the exposition at the highest alphabet. ≤ ≥
mathematical convention is a fact, name,
possible level.
notation or usage which is generally agreed What is Pattern?
EXPRESSION VERSUS SENTENCES upon by mathematicians. Let’s say for
example, one evaluates multiplication before Patterns in nature are visible regularities
An expression (or mathematical of form found in the natural world and can also
addition following the principle of PEMDAS
expression) is a finite combination of symbols be seen in the universe. These patterns recur
(Parenthesis, Exponent, Multiplication, Division,
that is well defined according to rules that in different contexts and sometimes modelled
Addition and Subtraction). Mathematicians
depend on the context. The symbol can mathematically. Man has developed a formal
abide by convention to be able to understand
designate numbers, variables operations, system of thought recognizing, classifying, and
what they write without constantly having to
functions, brackets, punctuations and exploiting patterns which we called
redefine basic terms. Almost all mathematical
groupings to help determine order of mathematics.
names and symbols are conventional.
operations and other aspects of mathematical
syntax. An expression is a correct arrangement As is the case for spoken mathematical All snowflakes contain sixfold symmetry which
of mathematical symbols used to represent the language, in written or printed mathematical two are exactly the same. There is evidence
object of interest, it does not contain a discourse, mathematical expressions presented by mathematicians that hexagonal
complete thought, and it cannot be determined containing a symbolic verb like snowflakes have atomic geometry of crystals.
if it is true or false. Some types of expression
= (equal), < (less than), > (greater than), Zebras, tigers, snakes and cats or example are
are numbers, sets and functions.
covered in patters of stripes. Leopards, hyenas
(multiplication), ÷(division), ∈(element), ∀
+ (addition), - (subtraction), x
A sentence (or mathematical sentence) are covered by patterns of spots; and giraffes
makes a statement about two expressions are covered in patterns of blotches.
(for all), ∃(there exist), ∞ (infinity), →
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE Fibonacci discovery of Fibonacci architecture and design. It can be used as a
sequence happened to approach the ratio of tool in art design to achieve balance in the
Around 1200 AD when Pizano or Leonardo of
asymptotically. The Fibonacci sequences is a composition. The Golden Ratio was named by
Pisa (1170-1250) published the Liber Abbaci, or
series of numbers in which each number the Greeks (or Golden section, or Golden
“Book of Calculation” an arithmetic text which
(Fibonacci number) is the sum of the two Proportion, or Divine Proportion) is usually
concentrated mainly on financial computations
preceding numbers. The simplest is the series denoted by the Greek letter Phi (φ), in lower
and promoted the use of Hindu-Arabic
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ... He found the interesting and case, which represents an irrational number,
numerals the forerunner of today’s familiar
mysterious properties of the Fibonacci 1.6180339887...
system, which uses just ten digits, 0 t0 9, to
sequence that the series has a deep
represent all possible numbers. PATTERNS AND REGULARITIES
relationship with the golden ratio. The Golden
The Fibonacci sequence is the sequence Ratio was first called as the Divine Proportion in Mathematics is all around us. As we
f1, f2, f3, f3 ... which has its first two terms f 1, and the early 1500s in Leonardo da Vinci’s work discover more about our environment, we can
f2 both equal to 1 and satisfies thereafter the which was explored by Luca Pacioli. mathematically describe nature. The beauty of
recursion formula fn = fn-1 + fn-2. When continued a flower, the beauty of a flower, the majestic
GOLDEN RATIO in NATURE
indefinitely, the sequence is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, tree, even the rock formation exhibits nature’s
21, 34, 55, 89, 144, . . . Fibonacci numbers are said to be one of sense of symmetry.
nature’s numbering systems, we see
Leonardo of Pisa also known as A. SYMMETRY
arrangements and structures reflecting
Fibonacci discovered a sequence of numbers
Fibonacci numbers or Golden ratio. Symmetry is a sense of harmonious and
that created an interesting pattern the
beautiful proportion of balance, or an object is
sequence is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ... each Golden ratio is the most important part
invariant to any of the various transformations
number is obtained by adding the last two of human beauty and aesthetics as well as a
(reflection, rotation, or scaling). There are two
numbers of the sequence forms what is known part of the remarkable proportions of growth
main types of symmetry, BILATERAL and
as golden rectangle a perfect rectangle. patterns in living things such as plants and
RADIAL. Bilateral symmetry is a symmetry in
animals.
Sunflower seed conveys the Fibonacci which the left and right sides of the organism
sequence. The pattern of two spirals goes in Plants have distinct characteristics of can be divided into approximately mirror image
opposing directions (clockwise and Golden ratio where they establish a Fibonacci of each other along the midline.
counterclockwise). The number of clockwise sequence in the number of leaves. Even the
Radial symmetry (or rotational
spirals and counterclockwise spirals are eyes of pineapple follow the Golden ratio and
symmetry) is a type of symmetry around a
consecutive Fibonacci numbers and usually golden spiral.
fixed point known as the center and it can be
contains 34 and 55 seeds. (Pineapples).
GOLDEN RATIO IN ARTS classified as either cyclic or dihedral. Plants
GOLDEN RATIO often have radial or rotational symmetry, as to
The Golden Ratio can be used to
flowers and some groups of animals.
achieve beauty, balance and harmony in art,
 B. FRACTALS

Fractal is curve or geometric figure, each part

of which has the same statistical character.
Fractal is one of the newest and most exciting
branches of mathematics. It is a class of highly
irregular shapes that are related to continents,
coastlines, and snowflakes. It is useful in
modeling structures in which similar patterns
recur at progressively smaller scales.

C. SPIRALS

A logarithmic spiral (or growth spiral) is a self-

similar spiral curve which often appears in
nature. It was first described by Rene
Descartes and was later investigated by Jacob
Bernoulli. Spirals are more evident in plants,
they can also be seen in typhoon, whirlpool,
galaxy, tail of chameleon, and shell among
others.

BEHAVIOR OF NATURE

The behavior of nature can be observed

in our daily life. such natural regularities of
nature include symmetry, fractals, spirals,
trees, meanders, waves, foams, tesselations,
cracks, stripes, and spots.