A

Micro Project On

“Report on Operating System, Virtual Memory, Page Replacement

Algorithms and Access Methods”

Submitted by
60.Sujal Patade

Under Guidance of
Mr. U. S. Shirshetti

Diploma Course in Information Technology

(As per directives of I Scheme, MSBTE)

Sinhgad Institutes
Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s
SOU. VENUTAI CHAVAN POLYTECHNIC, PUNE - 411041
ACADEMIC YEAR 2024– 2025
 Maharashtra State Board of technical
Education Certificate
This is to certify that Mast. Sujal Patade with Roll No. 60 of Third
Semester of Diploma in Information Technology of Institute Sou.
Venutai Chavan Polytechnic (Code:0040) has successfully
completed the Micro-Project in Operating System (22516) for
the academic year 2024-2025.

Place: SVCP, Pune Enrollment No: 2200400406

Date: Exam Seat No:

Mr. U. S. Shirshetti Mr. U. S. Shirshetti Dr. M. S. Jadhav

Course Teacher Head of Department Principal
 Annexure – I
Part A-Micro project proposal

A. BRIEF INTRODUCTION:

An operating system (OS) is the foundational software that manages a computer's hardware and
software resources, enabling users and applications to interact with the system efficiently. It plays
a crucial role in program execution, resource allocation, security, and protection, while offering
different views to users and the system. Key OS features include virtual memory, which optimizes
memory management through techniques like paging and segmentation, and various page
replacement algorithms that maintain system performance. Additionally, access methods and file
allocation strategies ensure effective data storage and retrieval, making the operating system an
essential component of modern computing.

B. AIM OF THE PROJECT:

The aim of this report is to explore and understand the fundamental concepts, operations, and
mechanisms of modern operating systems. This includes examining the key components such as
program and resource management, security, and protection, as well as understanding advanced
concepts like virtual memory, page replacement algorithms, and file management methods. By
gaining insight into these topics, the report aims to highlight how operating systems efficiently
manage system resources and ensure optimal performance and security in computing environments.

C. INTENTED COURSE OUTCOME:

a. Install operating system and configure it.
b. Use operating system tools to perform various functions.
c. Execute process commands for performing process management operations.
d. Apply scheduling algorithms to calculate turnaround time and average waiting time.
e. Calculate efficiency of different memory management techniques.
f. Apply file management techniques.
D. RESOURCES REQUIRED:

Name of Resource
Sr. No. Specification
Required
1. Laptop Dell - i7 ,16 GB RAM
2. Operating system Windows 11
3. Software Google chrome

E. ACTION PLAN:

SR.NO. DETAIL OF ACTIVITY WEEK

Discussion and finalization of

1 topic 03/09/2024
Preparation and submission of
2 10/09/2024
Abstract

3 Literature Review 17/09/2024

4 Collection of Data 24/09/2024
5 Discussion and outline of Content 01/10/2024
Editing and proof Reading of
6 Content 08/10/2024
Compilation of Report and
Presentation 15/10/2024
7

8 Final submission of Micro Project 22/10/2024

GROUP MEMBERS:

Roll. No. Name of group members

60 Sujal Patade
 Annexure II
Part B- Micro-Project
1. Rationale

An Operating System is basically a system program that controls the execution of application
programs and acts as an interface between applications and the computer hardware. It
manages the computer system resources to be used in an efficient manner. This course enables
to learn internal functioning of operating system and will help in identifying appropriate
Operating System for given applications/task. This course is also a prerequisite for the group
of courses included in 'Cloud Infrastructure Maintenance' Elective group.

2. Course Outcome Addressed

a. Install operating system and configure it.
e. Calculate efficiency of different memory management techniques.
f. Apply file management techniques

3. Actual Method Followed

The process for this micro project is to make a " Report on Operating System, Virtual
Memory, Page Replacement Algorithms and Access Methods "
We collect information and organize by following points:
1. Collect the information on Notepad.
2. Show the information to faculty.
3. Learn about layers of atmospheres.
4. First make a raw report and then correct it.
5. After all the corrections make a proposal.
6. Prepare a project on “Report on Operating System, Virtual Memory, Page Replacement
Algorithms and Access Methods”
7. Make pdf of report and print it.
 ANNEXURE III
Evaluation Sheet for the Micro Project

Academic Year: 2024-2025 Name of the Faculty: Mr. U. S. Shirshetti

Course: Operating System Course Code: 22516 Semester: Fifth

Title of the project: " Report on Operating System, Virtual Memory, PageReplacement Algorithms
and Access Methods."

COs addressed by Micro Project:

S. No Course Outcomes
a. Install operating system and configure it.
e. Calculate efficiency of different memory management techniques.
f. Apply file management techniques

Major learning outcomes achieved by students by doing the project

(A)Practical outcomes in Cognitive domain :
a) Install and configure Linux (or alike) operating system[1].
b) Write a ‘C’ program to implement FIFO page replacementalgorithm
[5].
c) Write and execute Shell Script by using following Control statementsfeatures-
"if" statement
(B) Unit outcomes in Cognitive domain:
1a. Explain the functioning of given component of OS.
1b. Explain characteristics of the given type of operating system.5c. Write
algorithm for the given page replacement technique.
5d. Calculate Page fault for the given page reference string.6b.
Describe mechanism of the given file access method

Comments/suggestions about team work /leadership/inter-personal

communication (if any)
…………………………………………………………………………
Marks out of 6 Marks out of 4
Roll for performance for performance
No Name of the Student in group activity in oral/ Total Marks
(D5 Col.8) presentation out of 10
(D5 Col.9)
60 Sujal Patade

(Name & Signature)

Operating System

• Concept of Operating System

Operating System a type of system software. It basically manages all the resources of the
computer. An operating system acts as an interface between the software and different parts of
the computer or the computer hardware. The operating system is designed in such a way that it
can manage the overall resources and operations of the computer.
Operating System is a fully integrated set of specialized programs that handle all the operations
of the computer. It controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that reside in the
computer, which also includes application programs and other system software of the computer.
Examples of Operating Systems are Windows, Linux, Mac OS, etc.

• Components of Operating System

1. User Interface

Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI). Two fundamental approaches
or users to interface with the
operating system are command-line interface and graphical user interface or GUI.
Command interpreter executes next
user-specified command. A GUI provides a mouse-based window and menu system as
an interface.

2. Program Execution
The operating system provides an environment to run users programs efficiently. The
resources needed to theprograms to complete execution are provided by operating
system ensuring optimum utilization of computer system.
Memory allocation and deallocation, processor allocation and scheduling, multitasking
etc functions are performed by operating system. The operating system has all rights of
resource management. User program does not given these rights.
3. I/O Device Management
The I/O device management component is an I/O manager that hides the details of
hardware devices and manages the main memory for devices using cache and spooling.
This component provides a buffer cache and general device driver code that allows the
system to manage the main memory and the hardware devices connected to it. It also
provides and manages custom drivers for particular hardware devices.
The purpose of the I/O system is to hide the details of hardware devices from the
application programmer. An I/O device management component allows highly efficient
resource utilization while minimizing errors and making programming easy on the
entire range of devices available in their systems.

4. Security Management
The security mechanisms in an operating system ensure that authorized programs have
access to resources, and unauthorized programs have no access to restricted resources.
Security management refers to the various processes where the user changes the file,
memory, CPU, and other hardware resources that should have authorization from the
operating system.

5. File System Management

Files are used for long-term storage. Files are used for both input and output. Every
operating system provides a file management service. This file management service can
also be treated as an abstraction as it hides the information about the disks from the
user. The operating system also provides a system call for file management.
Files are stored in a directory. System calls provide to put a file in a directory or to
remove a file from a directory. Files in the system are protected to maintain the privacy
of the user. Below shows the Hierarchical File Structure directory.
• Views of Operating System

1. User View

The user view depends on the system interface that is used by the users. Some systems
are designed for a single user to monopolize the resources to maximize the user's task.
In these cases, the OS is designed primarily for ease of use, with little emphasis on
quality and none on resource utilization.

The user viewpoint focuses on how the user interacts with the operating system through
the usage of various application programs. In contrast, the system viewpoint focuses on
how the hardware interacts with the operating system to complete various tasks.

2. System View
The OS may also be viewed as just a resource allocator. A computer system comprises
various sources, such as hardware and software, which must be managed effectively.
The operating system manages the resources, decides between competing demands,
controls the program execution, etc. According to this point of view, the operating
system's purpose is to maximize performance. The operating system is responsible for
managing hardware resources and allocating them to programs and users to ensure
maximum performance.

From the user point of view, we've discussed the numerous applications that require
varying degrees of user participation. However, we are more concerned with how the
hardware interacts with the operating system than with the user from a system
viewpoint.
Virtual Memory
Virtual memory is a memory management technique used by operating systems to give the
appearance of a large, continuous block of memory to applications, even if the physical
memory (RAM) is limited. It allows the system to compensate for physical memory shortages,
enabling larger applications to run on systems with less RAM.

• Introduction to Paging

Paging is a memory management scheme that eliminates the need for a contiguous
allocation of physical memory. The process of retrieving processes in the form of pages
from the secondary storage into the main memory is known as paging. The basic purpose
of paging is to separate each procedure into pages. Additionally, frames will be used to
split the main memory. This scheme permits the physical address space of a process to be
non – contiguous.
 In paging, the physical memory is divided into fixed-size blocks called page frames, which
are the same size as the pages used by the process. The process’s logical address space is
also divided into fixed-size blocks called pages, which are the same size as the page
frames. When a process requests memory, the operating system allocates one or more page
frames to the process and maps the process’s logical pages to the physical page frames.

The mapping between logical pages and physical page frames is maintained by the page
table, which is used by the memory management unit to translate logical addresses into
physical addresses. The page table maps each logical page number to a physical page frame
number

• Segmentation

A process is divided into Segments. The chunks that a program is divided into which are
not necessarily all of the exact sizes are called segments. Segmentation gives the user’s
view of the process which paging does not provide. Here the user’s view is mapped to
physical memory.

Segment Table
It maps a two-dimensional Logical address into a one-dimensional Physical address. It’s
each table entry has:
o Base Address: It contains the starting physical address where the segments reside in
memory.
o Segment Limit: Also known as segment offset. It specifies the length of the segment.
Advantages of Segmentation in Operating System :-

o Reduced Internal Fragmentation: Segmentation reduces internal fragmentation by

sizing segments to match a process’s needs.
o Smaller Segment Table: The segment table uses less space compared to the larger
page table in paging.
o Improved CPU Utilization: Segmentation loads entire modules at once, enhancing
CPU efficiency.
o Flexible Memory Allocation: Segmentation offers flexible, variable-sized segments
for more efficient memory use.
o Sharing and Inter-Process Communication: Segments can be shared between
processes, enabling code or data sharing.

Disadvantages of Segmentation in Operating System

o External Fragmentation: Segmentation can lead to external fragmentation as free

memory gets divided into smaller, unusable pieces.
o Increased Overhead: Maintaining a segment table for each process adds memory and
processing overhead.
o Slower Memory Access: Access time increases due to the need for two memory
accesses—one for the segment table and one for main memory.
o Fragmentation: Segmentation suffers from external fragmentation, which can lead to
wasted memory and reduced performance.
o Higher Complexity: Segmentation is more complex to implement and manage
compared to paging, especially with multiple segments per process.

• Fragmentation

The process of dividing a computer file, such as a data file or an executable program file,
into fragments that are stored in different parts of a computer’s storage medium, such as
its hard disc or RAM, is known as fragmentation in computing.

When a file is fragmented, it is stored on the storage medium in non-contiguous blocks,

which means that the blocks are not stored next to each other.

An unwanted problem with operating systems is fragmentation, which occurs when

processes load and unload from memory and divide available memory. Because memory
blocks are so small, they cannot be assigned to processes, and thus remain idle. It’s also
important to realize that programs create free space or holes in memory when they are
loaded and unloaded. Because additional processes cannot be assigned to these little
pieces, memory is used inefficiently.
The memory allocation scheme determines the fragmentation circumstances. These
regions of memory become fragmented when the process loads and unloads from it,
making it unusable for incoming processes. We refer to it as fragmentation.

Types of Fragmentation

o . Internal Fragmentation

Internal fragmentation occurs when there is unused space within a memory block.
For example, if a system allocates a 64KB block of memory to store a file that is
only 40KB in size, that block will contain 24KB of internal fragmentation. When
the system employs a fixed-size block allocation method, such as a memory
allocator with a fixed block size, this can occur.

o External Fragmentation
Fragmentation can also occur at various levels within a system. File
fragmentation, for example, can occur at the file system level, in which a file is
divided into multiple non-contiguous blocks and stored on a storage medium.
Memory fragmentation can occur at the memory management level, where the
system allocates and deallocated memory blocks dynamically. Network
fragmentation occurs when a packet of data is divided into smaller fragments for
transmission over a network.
• Page Fault

A page fault is a critical event in computer systems in which a program try

to attempts to access data or code that is not currently available in the
physical memory (main memory). This occurrence is an integral part of
virtual memory management which allows the system to physically fit large
amounts of data efficiently in memory.

Cause of Page Faults

o Demand Paging
Demand paging is a technique used in virtual memory systems where pages enter
main memory only when requested or needed by the CPU. In demand paging, the
operating system loads only the necessary pages of a program into memory at
runtime, instead of loading the entire program into memory at the start. A page fault
occurred when the program needed to access a page that is not currently in memory.
The operating system then loads the required pages from the disk into memory and
updates the page tables accordingly. This process is transparent to the running
program and it continues to run as if the page had always been in memory.
Page Replacement Algorithms
Page replacement algorithms are techniques used in operating systems to manage memory
efficiently when the virtual memory is full. When a new page needs to be loaded into physical
memory , and there is no free space, these algorithms determine which existing page to replace.
If no page frame is free, the virtual memory manager performs a page replacement operation
to replace one of the pages existing in memory with the page whose reference caused the page
fault. It is performed as follows: The virtual memory manager uses a page replacement
algorithm to select one of the pages currently in memory for replacement, accesses the page
table entry of the selected page to mark it as “not present” in memory, and initiates a page-out
operation for it if the modified bit of its page table entry indicates that it is a dirty page.

Page Replacement Techniques

• First In First Out (FIFO)

This is the simplest page replacement algorithm. In this algorithm, the operating system
keeps track of all pages in the memory in a queue, the oldest page is in the front of the
queue. When a page needs to be replaced page in the front of the queue is selected for
removal.

Example:-

o Consider page reference string 1, 3, 0, 3, 5, 6, 3 with 3 page frames.Finding the

number of page faults.

Initially, all slots are empty, so when 1, 3, 0 came they are allocated to the empty
slots → 3 Page Faults.
when 3 comes, it is already in memory so→0 Page Faults. Then 5 comes, it is not
available in memory so it replaces the oldest page slot i.e 1. → 1 Page Fault. 6
comes, it is also not available in memory so it replaces the oldest page slot i.e 3 →
1 Page Fault. Finally, when 3 come it is not available so it replaces 0 1 page fault.
• Least Recently Used

LRU stands for Least Recently Used. As the name suggests, this algorithm is based on
the strategy that whenever a page fault occurs, the least recently used page will be
replaced with a new page. So, the page not utilized for the longest time in the memory
(compared to all other pages) gets replaced. This strategy is known as LRU paging.

Example:-
o Consider the page reference string 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 3 with 4
page frames. Finding number of page faults.

Initially, all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the empty slots →
4 Page faults
0 is already their so → 0 Page fault. when 3 came it will take the place of 7
because it is least recently used→ 1 Page fault
0 is already in memory so → 0 Page fault .
4 will takes place of 1 → 1 Page Fault

Now for the further page reference string → 0 Page fault because they are
already available in the memory.
• Optimal Page Replacement

"Optimal page replacement algorithm" is the most desirable page replacement

algorithm that we use for replacing pages. This algorithm replaces the page whose
demand in the future is less as compared to other pages from frames (secondary memory).
The replacement occurs when the page fault appears. The purpose of this algorithm is to
minimize the number of page faults. Also, one of the most famous abnormalities in the
paging technique is "Belady's Anomaly", which is least seen in this algorithm.

Example:-

o Consider the page references 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 3 with 4 page

frame. Find number of page fault.

Initially, all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the empty slots →
4 Page faults
0 is already there so → 0 Page fault. when 3 came it will take the place of 7
because it is not used for the longest duration of time in the future. → 1 Page
fault. 0 is already there so → 0 Page fault. 4 will takes place of 1→1 Page
Fault.
Access Methods
File access methods in an operating system are the techniques and processes used to read from
and write to files stored on a computer’s storage devices. There are several ways to access this
information in the file. Some systems provide only one access method for files. Other systems,
such as those of IBM, support many access methods, and choosing the right one for a particular
application is a major design problem.
These methods determine how data is organized, retrieved, and modified within a file system.
Understanding file access methods is crucial for efficient data management and system
performance. In this article, we are going to discuss different types of methods to access the
file.

Types of File Access Methods in the Operating System

• Sequential Access

The operating system reads the file word by word in a sequential access method of file
accessing. A pointer is made, which first links to the file's base address. If the user wishes
to read the first word of the file, the pointer gives it to them and raises its value to the
next word. This procedure continues till the file is finished. It is the most basic way of
file access. The data in the file is evaluated in the order that it appears in the file and that
is why it is easy and simple to access a file's data using a sequential access mechanism.
For example, editors and compilers frequently use this method to check the validity of
the code.

Advantages of Sequential Access:

o The sequential access mechanism is very easy to implement.
o It uses lexicographic order to enable quick access to the next entry.
Disadvantages of Sequential Access:
o Sequential access will become slow if the next file record to be retrieved is not
present next to the currently pointed record.
o Adding a new record may need relocating a significant number of records of the
file.
• Direct (or Relative) Access

A Direct/Relative file access mechanism is mostly required with the database systems.
In the majority of the circumstances, we require filtered/specific data from the database,
and in such circumstances, sequential access might be highly inefficient. Assume that
each block of storage holds four records and that the record we want to access is stored
in the tenth block. In such a situation, sequential access will not be used since it will have
to traverse all of the blocks to get to the required record, while direct access will allow
us to access the required record instantly.

The direct access mechanism requires the OS to perform some additional tasks but
eventually leads to much faster retrieval of records as compared to sequential access.

Advantages of Direct/Relative Access:

o The files can be retrieved right away with a direct access mechanism, reducing
the average access time of a file.
o There is no need to traverse all of the blocks that come before the required block
to access the record.
Disadvantages of Direct/Relative Access:
o The direct access mechanism is typically difficult to implement due to its
complexity.
o Organizations can face security issues as a result of direct access as the users may
access/modify the sensitive information. As a result, additional security processes
must be put in place.
• Swapping Access

Swapping in an operating system is a process that moves data or programs between the
computer’s main memory (RAM) and a secondary storage (usually a hard disk or SSD).
This helps manage the limited space in RAM and allows the system to run more programs
than it could otherwise handle simultaneously.

It’s important to remember that swapping is only used when data isn’t available in RAM.
Although the swapping process degrades system performance, it allows larger and
multiple processes to run concurrently. Because of this, swapping is also known as
memory compaction. The CPU scheduler determines which processes are swapped in
and which are swapped out. Consider a multiprogramming environment that employs a
priority-based scheduling algorithm. When a high-priority process enters the input queue,
a low-priority process is swapped out so the high-priority process can be loaded and
executed. When this process terminates, the low-priority process is swapped back into
memory to continue its execution.

Advantages of Swapping Access Method

o If there is low main memory so some processes may has to wait for much long
but by using swapping process do not have to wait long for execution on CPU.
o This concept can be useful in priority based scheduling to optimize the swapping
process.
Disadvantages of Swapping Access Method

o If there is low main memory resource and user is executing too many processes
and suddenly the power of system goes off there might be a scenario where data
get erase of the processes which are took parts in swapping.
o Chances of number of page faults occur
• File Allocation Method

The File allocation methods in OS are different ways that are used for storing the file on
the hard disk. There are different ways in which we can store the files on the hard disk in
such a manner that there is efficient utilization of disk space and the file can be accessed
faster by the Operating System.

Types of File Allocation Methods in Operating System.

• Contiguous File Allocation

In contiguous file allocation, the block is allocated in such a manner that all the allocated
blocks in the hard disk are adjacent.
Assuming a file needs 'n' number of blocks in the disk and the file begins with a block at
position'x', the next blocks to be assigned to it will be x+1,x+2,x+3,...,x+n-1 so that they
are in a contiguous manner.

Example
o We have three different types of files that are stored in a contiguous manner on
the hard disk.

In the above image on the left side, we have a memory diagram where we can see the
blocks of memory. At first, we have a text file named file1.txt which is allocated using
contiguous memory allocation, it starts with the memory block 0 and has a length of 4 so
it takes the 4 contiguous blocks 0,1,2,3. Similarly, we have an image file and video file
named sun.jpg and mov.mp4 respectively, which you can see in the directory that they
are stored in the contiguous blocks. 5,6,7 and 9,10,11 respectively.
Advantages Contiguous File Allocation
o It is very easy to implement.
o There is a minimum amount of seek time.
Disadvantages Contiguous File Allocation
o At the time of creation, the file size must be initialized.
o As it is pre-initialized, the size cannot increase.

• Linked File Allocation

The Linked file allocation overcomes the drawback of contiguous file allocation. Here
the file which we store on the hard disk is stored in a scattered manner according to the
space available on the hard disk. Now, you must be thinking about how the OS
remembers that all the scattered blocks belong to the same file. So as the name linked
File Allocation suggests, the pointers are used to point to the next block of the same file,
therefore along with the entry of each file each block also stores the pointer to the next
block.

Example:-

o Here we have one file which is stored using Linked File Allocation.

In the above image on the right, we have a memory diagram where we can see
memory blocks. On the left side, we have a directory where we have the
information like the address of the first memory block and the last memory block.
In this allocation, the starting block given is 0 and the ending block is 15,
therefore the OS searches the empty blocks between 0 and 15 and stores the files
in available blocks, but along with that it also stores the pointer to the next block
in the present block. Hence it requires some extra space to store that link.

Advantages of Linked File Allocation

o There is no external fragmentation.
o The directory entry just needs the address of starting block.
Disadvantages of Linked File Allocation
o It does not support random access or direct access.
o If pointers are affected so the disk blocks are also affected.
• Indexed File Allocation

The indexed file allocation is somewhat similar to linked file allocation as indexed
file allocation also uses pointers but the difference is here all the pointers are put
together into one location which is called index block. That means we will get all the
locations of blocks in one index file. The blocks and pointers were spread over the
memory in the Linked Allocation method, where retrieval was accomplished by visiting
each block sequentially. But here in indexed allocation, it becomes easier with the index
block to retrieve.

Let's take an example to explain this better.

Example:-

o As shown in the diagram below block 19 is the index block which contains all
the addresses of the file named text1. In order, the first storage block is 9,
followed by 16, 1, then 10, and 25. The negative number -1 here denotes the
empty index block list as the file text1 is still too small to fill more blocks.

Advantages of Indexed File Allocation

o It reduces the possibilities of external fragmentation.
o Rather than accessing sequentially it has direct access to the block.
Disadvantages of Indexed File Allocation
o Here more pointer overhead is there.
o If we lose the index block we cannot access the complete file.
References

https://www.scaler.com/topics/file-allocation-methods-in-os/
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/swapping-in-operating-system/
https://www.scaler.com/topics/file-access-methods-in-os/
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/file-access-methods-in-operating-system/
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/program-for-least-recently-used-lru-page-replacement-
algorithm/

https://www.scaler.com/topics/optimal-page-replacement-algorithm/
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/page-fault-handling-in-operating-system/
https://www.scaler.com/topics/lru-page-replacement-algorithm/
Conclusion
In conclusion, the operating system plays a critical role in managing hardware and software
resources efficiently, ensuring smooth execution of programs and user interaction with the
system. By examining core components such as program management, resource allocation, and
security, we gain a deeper understanding of how operating systems support multitasking and
protection mechanisms.
Virtual memory concepts like paging and segmentation help optimize memory usage, while
page replacement algorithms, including FIFO, LRU, and Optimal, ensure efficient
management of memory pages during execution. These mechanisms are essential to preventing
fragmentation and reducing page faults, which can slow down system performance.
Furthermore, access methods such as sequential and direct access, along with file allocation
techniques, provide robust mechanisms for organizing and retrieving data. These methods,
whether contiguous, linked, or indexed, help manage files in storage efficiently while
minimizing delays caused by seeking and swapping.
Overall, understanding the operations, management, and optimization techniques within an
operating system is vital for improving performance, enhancing security, and maximizing
resource utilization in modern computing environments. This knowledge equips us to build
better systems that meet both user and system demands efficiently.