ame Fe Re SR Re RS Be Electromagnetics Lab EXPERIMENT NO.5 SETTING UP OF FIBER OPTIC DIGITAL LINK AIM To construct a digital communication optical link to transmit digital signals EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED OFT, Function generator, two channel oscilloscope, BNC cable THEORY | as well as analog signals. ‘The Fiber optic links ean be used for transmission of digit Basically, a fiber optic link contains three main elements transmitter and optical fiber and a receiver, The transmitter module takes the input signal in electrical form and then transforms it into optical (light) energy containing the same information. The optical fiber is the medium, which carries this energy to the receiver. At the receiver, Light is converted back into electrical form with the same pattern as originally fed to the transmitter. The OFT can be used to set up two fiber optic digital link, at a wavelength of 850nm. LDI, in the optical Tx block, is an 850 hm LD. PDI, in the optical Rx block, is a PIN detector which gives a current proportional to the optical power falling on the detector. The received signal is amplified and converted to a ‘TTL signal using a comparator. The GAIN control plays a crucial role in this conversion. PD2, in the optical Rx2 block, is another receiver which directly gives out a TTL signal. PROCEDURE 1, Ensure that all shortly link post pairs A and B in the OFT are shorted with shorting plugs. 2, Ensure that all jumper post A1 and B of Jumper in the OFT are shorted using shorting plugs. This is the default setting for the jumpers. 3, Set the Analog or Digital selection switch SWS to the digital position, 4, Turn the OFT on. Its power-on switch is located near its power input socket. Its power-on indicator LED will light up provided itis receiving power from the power supply module 5. LEDs L8 and L9 in the marker detection block will be on at this stage indicating that there is no link established. 2Electromagnetics Lab 6, The OFT comes with a few different lengths of plastic fiber cable. ake the shortest length cable to set up a working fiber optic link. 7, Connect the one metre fiber cable between LED! and PDI (in the optical Rx block). Set the GAIN Knob to its minimum position. 8. Now slowly increase the gain until either L8 or L9 or both go off. Press the RESET switch, ‘Now LEDs L8 and L9 should both be off. 9. Toggle switches SWO to SW7 and sce the correspond has a coding fiber optic link set setup. LEDs LO to L7. The OFT now CIElectromagnetics Lab swe (ANATOGIDIGITAL Selection ewich) RESULT Fiber optic digital link was implemented.Electromagnetics Lab EXPERIMENT NO.6 MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE AIM To measure the numerical aperture of the Optical Fiber. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED OFT, Numerical aperture unit. THEORY Optical fiber is one of the important elements in an optical fiber link. The performance ofthe link depends upon the attenuation and dispersion properties of optical fiber, which in turn are function of the input power carried by the cabled fiber. Considered propagationof light in an optical fiber, the con ion of total internal reflection at the core-cladding interface is necessary. Therefore, for rays to be transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber core they must be incident on the fiber core wit an acceptance cone defined by the conical half angle (diac). Thus, das is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber in order to be propagated and is often referred to as the acceptance angle for the fiber. Light Propagation through optical fiber Experimental Setup for Numerical Aperture MeasurementElectromagnetics Lab A more generally used term, the numerical aperture relates the acceptance angle and refractive index of the three media involved (the core, cladding and air) and is a basic descriptive characteristic of a specific optical fiber. It represents the size or degree of openness of the input acceptance cone. Mathematically it is defined as the sine half angle of the acceptance cone and is a very useful measure of light-collecting ability of a fiber. ‘Using Snell’s law, the maximum angle within which light will be accepted into and guided through optical fiber is Light Propagation through optical fiber NA= nw Sin (Onax) = (nu? — nz )'* Where ®mas is the critical angle, no the refractive index of air and m and np are the refractive indices of the core and the cladding respectively. PROCEDURE + Connect the end of the fiber to the OFT + Switch ON the power supply + Install the measuring stand + Keep the minimum distance of about 10mm between fiber tip and graph plane. + Measure and note down the diameter of the circle forward by the light on the graph plane ; + Find the value ofr + Increase the intensity of light, we get bright red-light circular patch, + Now observe the illuminated circular patch of light on the screen. + Measure exactly the distance d and also the vertical and horizontal Mean 26Electromagnetics Lab radius 4s calculated using the following formula r = (DE+BC)/4 + Find the numerical aperture of the Fiber using the formula (NA =Sin Ona = 1 / (d+ 2)" dis the distance between tips of the fiber or height. TABULATION SLNo. | Distance (@) | _ Radius () Numerical | Critical Angle, (cm) (cm) Aperture (NA) Bia, © Sen SR NA = sin Onax =r / (€? + 77)" ‘Number of modes = V7/2 ‘The normalized frequency parameter or V number gives the upper limit of the number of TE modes that can be transmitted in a multimode optical fiber. ‘The V number can be calculated by, V= [2na. NAA Number of modes = V2 RESULT ‘Measurement of Numerical aperture of an optical fiber was studied.i y i y Electromagnetics Lab EXPERIMENT NO.7 STUDY OF LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBERS AIM ‘To measure propagation loss and bending losses for two different wavelengths in optical Fiber. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED OFT, optical fiber cable, CRO, connecting probe THEORY Optical Fibers are available in different variety of materials. These materials are usually selected by taking into account their absorption characteristics for different wavelengths of light. In case of Optical Fiber, since the signal is transmitted in the form of light, whichis completely different in nature as that of electrons, one has to consider the interaction ofmatter the radiation to study the losses in fiber. Losses are introduced in fiber due to various reasons. As light propagates from one end of Fiber to another end, part of itis absorbed in the material exhibiting absorption loss. Also, part of the light is reflected back or in some other directions from the impurity particles present in the material Contributing to the loss of the signal at the other end of the Fiber. In general terms it is known as propagation loss. Plastic Fibers have higher loss of the order of 180 dB/Km whenever the condition for angle of incidence of the incident lights is violated the losses is introduced due to refraction of light. This occurs when fiber is subjected to bending. Lower the radius of curvature more is the loss. Other losses are due to the coupling of Fiber at LED & photo detector ends, PROCEDURE *+ Connect the power supply cord to main supply + Connect the Im fiber to the source and note the peak value of received signal on the CRO. + Switch on the instrument fiber optic source (keep the position on 850nm) + Replace the Im fiber cable with the 3m cable without disturbing any setting, Again note the peak point, this reading will be lesser than previous and indicating that thepropagation loss increases with increase in length. Ifais the attenuation/loss in the fiber then, we have V1/V3 = exp {-a (L1-L3)} Where- a= neper/meter, L1= Fiber length for V1,L3= Fiber length for V3,Electromagnetics Lab Calculate propagation loss using above equation, ‘Measurement of Bending Losses * Connect the fiber to the power supply and measure the power + Bend the Fiber in a loop measure the amplitude of the received signal. + Keep reducing the diameter of bend to about 3 cm & take corresponding out voltage readings. (Do not reduce loop diameter less than 1 cm). + Plot a graph of the received signal amplitude versus the radius, TABULATION The measured length of fiber, Li=- O/P voltage Vi for length of fiber, Li= ‘The measured length of fiber, L3=— O/P voltage Vs for length of fiber, Ls Calculate the attenuation(a) using the equation V1/V3 = exp {-a (L1-L3)} Diameter Voltage! Amplitude (V) Model Graph bese Se Fiber Laneth Gm adios ofeurvatureElectromagnetics Lab ek key RESULT Different losses in optical fiber were studied. 30" Electromagnetics Lab EXPERIMENT NO.8 VOLTAGE ys. CURRENT (VI) CHARACTERISTICS OF LED AIM To study and plot the V-I characteristics LED. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED Resistor, LED, Rheostat, Voltmeter and ammeter THEORY A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when an electric current is applied in forward direction of the device as in simple LED circuit. The effect isa form of electroluminescence where incoherent and narrow-spectrum light is emitted from the p-n junction. To be useful in fiber transmission applications and LED must have a high radiance output, a fast emission response time and high quantum efficiency. To achieve a high radiance and high quantum efficiency, the LED structure must provide a means of confining the charge carriers and the stimulated optical emission to the active region of the pn juncti where radiative recombination takes place. PROCEDURE © Connection is done as per the circuit diagram «Voltmeter is connected in parallel and ammeter is connected in series with LED «DC power supply is connected and voltage is varied. Observe variation in current. Plot the VI characteristics 31Electromagnetics Lab Experimental Setup Forward lasing condition of LEO Model Graph Current (mA) Voltage (V) OBSERVATION Voltage (V) Current (mA) RESULT The V-I characteristics of LED source for the CW was studied. 2es Eas Electromagnetics Lab EXPERIMENT NO.9 : SIMULATION OF DIPOLE ANTENNA AIM To plot manually the radiation pattern of dipole antenna and compare with computer generated radiation patter, THEORY The dipole antenna or dipole aerial is one of the most important and commonly used types of RF antenna, It is widely used on its own, and iti also incorporated into many other RF antenna designs where it forms the radiating or driven element for the antenna. The dipole is a simple antenna to construct and use, and many of the calculations are quite straightforward, However, like all other antennas, the in-depth calculations are considerably more complicated, Program: 2.This program print pattern (AF) fr Short and any Dipole Antenna by giving the length of your Dipole lamda=Input(enter the value of wave length= ); put(enter your dipole length ="; ratios/iamda; B=(2*pi/lamda); theta= pi/100:pi/100:2*pi; ifratio<=0.1 __%check if Short Dipole (theta); Enzabs(E); subplot(2,3,1) polar(theta,En) %eThis plot polar pattern in plane which dipole appear as line else check if not short dipole 05(8*1/2.*cos(theta)); E>(f-f2)./83; Enzabs(E); subplot(2,2,2) Polar{theta,En) _%6This plot polar pattern in plane which dipole appear as line end 33Electromagnetics Lab EXPERIMENT NO.J0 SIMULATION OF ANTENNA ARRAY AIM ‘To plot radiation pattern of radiation pattern SOFTWARE USED MATLAB THEORY An antenna composed of a relatively large number of usually identical elements arranged in a single line or in a plane with uniform spacing and usually with a uniform feed system. An array of identical elements all of identical magnitude and each with a progressive phase is referred to as a uniform array, . 35Program: ‘%éThis program print pattem for linear Array (uniform) Antenna by giing eNalfa,d ‘%and the wavelength you work with Sif you want full pattern maultiply this pattern by any Antenna pattern ‘%Have a nice Pattern “Arabia Tech” lamda=input('enter the value of wave length="); ‘Nzinput(‘enter the no. of elements="}; alfa=input(‘enter your progressive phase='); ‘d=inputt'enter the seperation distance between elements="); 8=(2*pi/lamda); theta= pi/100:pi/100:2*pi; wealfa+B*d.*cos(theta); AFssinc(N*(w./2))./sinc(w./2); subplot(2,3,3) polar(theta,AF) Result: 36Electromagnetics Lab EXPERIMENT NO.11 STUDY OF VECTOR NETWORK ANALYSER AIM To get familiarized with the principle and usage of vector network analyzer (VNA). THEORY A spectrum analyzer uses Fourier transform to determine the frequency spectrum of an arbitrary signal. While spectrum analyzers are mainly used to measure signal characteristics such as carrier level, side bands, harmonics and phase noise, network analyzers are used to characterize components, devices, circuits, and subassemblies. One distinguishes between scalar and vector network analyzers. A scalar network analyzer measures only the absolute value of a gain or loss with simple power detectors. Vector network analyzers (VNAs) additionally measure the phase, thus obtaining the full transmission or reflection coefficient. An n-port VNA ean determine the complete S-matrix (i, all S parameters) of a device, which the complex reflection coefficients on all ports, as well as the complex transmission coefficients between all ports. If only one port is available, the Scattering matrix reduces to $1). For @ two port VNA, the scattering matrix consists of four elements: bi= Suar+ Sua bo= Sua: + Sosa Si and Sn are the complex reflection coefficients of both ports and Sz: and Siz are the complex transmission factors between the ports. ai2 and biz are the amplitudes of the outgoing and incoming waves, respectively. Determining the elements of the matrix requires four measurements in total. First a signal is produced at port 1 (a2 = 0) and by and bs are measured, Hence Sy, and Sy are obtained, Then ay is set to zero and the signal is connected {o port 2. Measuring bl and b2 now yields Si and Sa2. In each case, the applied signal is simusoidal, and the measurement is repeated at many different frequencies. An n-port VNA proceeds accordingly with more ports, with power being applied to only ‘one port at atime. OF course, itis not always necessary to measure all the components of the S-matrix, ‘Remember that the elements ofthe scattering matrix are always referred to specific line impedance, Components of VNA: ‘© Signal generator. ‘+ Components to separate the incoming and reflected wave. Key elements are directional couplers. 37Electromagnetics Lab i Ss>ss| * The receiver groups that down-converts and demodulates the received signal. + Digital signal processing and a display of the measured data, A tunable signal generator is used as signal source. The separation of the incoming and the reflected Wave is achieved with directional couplers, explained in scetion. ‘The measured signal is then down- Converted in several stages to DC using mixers, so that both the in-phase and out-of phase components (ic, real and imaginary part) can be extracted and digitized, Between the two mixing stages used for down conversion, the signal is filtered to a narrowband, which provides the desired frequency selectivity and sets the so-called intermediate frequency bandwidth (IFBW). By adjusting it, a tradeoff between sensitivity and speed can be made, Modern network analyzers can present the data in various formats. Among these are a logarithmic plot of the amplinide of the scattering parameter, its phase, and it's trajectory in the complex plane. oe it Sr ae ‘Schematic view of VNA. The network analyzer needs a test signal, and a signal generator or signal source will provide one. Older network analyses did not have their own signal generator, but had the ability to control a standalone signal generator using, for example, a GPIB connection. Nearly all modem network analyzers have a built-in signal generator. High performance network analyzers have two built in sources. The test set takes the signal generator output and routes it tothe device under test, and it routes, the signal to be measured tothe receivers. I often splits offa reference channel forthe incident wave. Ina SNA, the reference channel may go toa diode detector whose output is set tothe signal generators output and better measurement accuracy. In a VNA the reference channel goes to the receivers; it is needed to serve as a phase reference. Some microwave test sels include the front end mixers for the receivers (test set for HP 8510).The receivers make the measurements. A network analyzer will have cone or more receivers connected to its test ports. The reference test port is usually labeled as r and the primary test ports are A B C.... Some analyzers will dedicate a separate receiver to each test port, but 38Electromagnetics Lab OY others share one or two receivers among the ports. For the SNA the receiver only measures the ‘magnitude of the signal. A receiver can be a detector diode that operates at the test frequency. For the VNA the receiver measures both the magnitude and the phase of the signal. It needs a reference channel (R) to determine the phase, so a VNA needs at least two receivers. The usual method down converts the reference and test channels to make the measurements at a lower frequency, The phase may be ‘measured with a quadrature detector Result Familiarized with the principle and usage of vector network analyzer (VNA).