UNIT-1

1.1 Introduction to Computer Network

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices (computers,
servers, networking hardware, etc.) that communicate and share resources with
each other. The purpose of a computer network is to facilitate communication,
enable resource sharing (such as files, printers, and internet access), and ensure
data transmission across multiple devices.

Definition:
A computer network is Defined as the Interconnection of two or more
Computers. It is done to enable the Computers to Communicate and share
available resources.
Network
What?
A group of System of interconnected people or Things.
Why?
❑ Connection
❑ Communication
Where?
when we need to transfer anything
A computer network is a system that connects two or more computing devices
to share data and resources. These devices, or nodes, such as computers, servers,
printers, or other hardware, communicate through various transmission mediums
like cables (wired) or wireless signals (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth). The main purpose of a
network is to facilitate communication, resource sharing, and data exchange
efficiently and reliably.

 Computer Network:

✓ Computer network is a set of devices (often referred to as node)

connected by communication links.

✓ A node can be a computer printer or any other device capable of sending

or receving data generated by other nodes on the network.

❖ Networking

❖ Networking is a process of communication between two or more remote

parties, that involves the connection of computers, media and networking
devices.
 ❖ Computer networking is like having a group of friends who all have
phones and can call or text each other. In computer networking,
instead of phones, we have computers and instead of phone lines, we
use cables, Wi-Fi, or other methods to connect them. When
computers are connected to a network, they can share information
and resources, like files, printers, and internet connections. This
allows them to communicate with each other quickly and easily, just
like friends talking on their phones.

 A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers,

networking hardware, personal computers, and other specialized or
general-purpose hosts can all be nodes in a computer network. Hostnames
and network addresses are used to identify them. In this article, we are
going to discuss computer networking in detail.

 Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other

through wires, optical Fibres or optical links so that various devices can
interact with each other through a network.

 The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various
devices.

 In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of

networks that vary from simple to complex level.

Advantages of Networking
 Easy Communication
 File, Data and Information sharing
 Resource sharing (hardware)
 Increase storage capacity
 Reduce Cost
 Save Time
Network Criteria
 Performance
✓ Transit Time
✓ Response Time
 Reliability
✓ Recovery from Failure
 Security
✓ Protecting data from:
Unauthorized User
Damage

Key Components of a Computer Network:

1. Nodes: Devices such as computers, servers, or other endpoints that connect

to the network.
2. Links: The communication paths between nodes, which can be wired
(Ethernet cables, fiber optics) or wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).
3. Protocols: Standard rules that define how data is transmitted and received
(e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP).
 4. Network Interface Cards (NIC): Hardware that connects a computer or
device to the network.
5. Switches and Routers: Networking devices used to manage data flow and
connect different network segments.
Importance of Computer Networks:
• Communication: Enables real-time communication via email, messaging,
and video conferencing.
• Resource Sharing: Allows sharing of hardware (like printers) and data
among multiple users.
• Data Storage: Centralized servers allow for shared databases and cloud
storage.
• Efficiency and Collaboration: Networks enable better collaboration in
organizations, allowing simultaneous access to shared data or documents.
Key Benefits of a Computer Network:
1. Resource Sharing: Allows devices to share hardware (printers, scanners)
and software (files, applications).
2. Data Communication: Enables real-time data exchange (emails,
messaging, file transfer).
3. Centralized Data Management: Offers centralized data storage, backup,
and management.
4. Scalability: Networks can be expanded easily by adding more nodes as
needed.
5. Cost-Effectiveness: Reduces hardware costs by enabling multiple devices
to use the same resources.

1.2 Computer Networking Types and Applications

Types of Computer Networks
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
Description: A LAN is a network that connects devices in a small, localized area,
such as a home, office, or school building. It's often used to link computers,
printers, and other devices, allowing users to share data and resources easily.
Application:
Offices and educational institutions use LANs to share files, printers, and
internet access.
In schools, students and staff can access shared software and databases.
Home networks use LANs to connect personal computers, gaming consoles,
and other devices.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
Description: A WAN covers a large geographic area, often using leased
telecommunication lines. WANs can connect multiple LANs, facilitating
communication between locations across cities, countries, or continents.
Application:
Corporations use WANs to connect regional offices and headquarters across
different cities or countries.
The internet is the largest example of a WAN, enabling communication and
data transfer on a global scale.
Government agencies and international businesses use WANs to transfer data
securely between distant locations.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Description: A MAN covers a larger area than a LAN but is smaller than a WAN.
It typically spans a city or large campus, linking several LANs together to create
a citywide or campus-wide network.
Application:
City governments use MANs for networking services between departments,
such as public safety, traffic management, and emergency services.
Universities use MANs to connect various campuses and departments within a
city.
Cable TV providers often operate MANs to provide internet services across a
city.
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)
Description: A PAN is a short-range network that connects personal devices
such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, and Bluetooth peripherals within a small
radius (usually a few meters).
Application:
Wireless headsets, Bluetooth speakers, and smartphones communicate over a
PAN.
Smart home devices like thermostats, lights, and security systems can be
controlled via a PAN.
Tethering a laptop to a mobile phone’s internet connection is an example of a
PAN.
5. Campus Area Network (CAN)
Description: A CAN is a network that covers a university, business campus, or
military base. It's larger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN, providing network
connectivity across a campus area.
Application:
Universities use CANs to connect multiple departments, libraries, and
dormitories.
Corporations employ CANs to connect various office buildings and facilities
within a large campus.
Military bases use CANs to connect buildings and communication systems over
large areas.
6. Storage Area Network (SAN)
Description: A SAN is a specialized network dedicated to connecting storage
devices (such as disk arrays or tape libraries) to servers. It provides high-speed,
low-latency data access.
Application:
Data centers use SANs to manage and access large volumes of stored data.
Large enterprises employ SANs to back up data and ensure high-speed access
to critical files.
Cloud service providers use SANs to offer fast and reliable storage to their
customers.
7. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
Description: A VPN creates a secure, encrypted connection over a public
network (such as the internet). This allows users to send and receive data as if
their devices were directly connected to a private network.
Application:
Remote employees use VPNs to access company networks securely from home
or while traveling.
Businesses use VPNs to provide secure communication between regional
offices and their headquarters.
Individuals use VPNs to browse the web securely and access region-restricted
content.
8. Global Area Network (GAN)
Description: A GAN is a worldwide network that spans multiple countries and
connects various networks across the globe. It uses satellite and fiber-optic
technologies for wide-range communication.
Application:
Multinational corporations utilize GANs to facilitate global communication and
data sharing.
Telecommunications companies operate GANs to provide global phone and
internet services.
Global financial institutions use GANs to manage transactions and
communications across continents.
Applications of Computer Networks

1. Business Applications
Resource Sharing: In companies, networks enable employees to share files,
printers, and access central databases.
Communication: Networks support email, video conferencing, and instant
messaging systems for internal and external communication.
Remote Work: Businesses use networks, often with VPNs, to allow employees
to work from remote locations securely.
Data Management: Companies use centralized servers to manage and back up
important data over a network.
2. Educational Applications
E-learning Platforms: Schools and universities use computer networks to
deliver online courses and provide remote access to educational resources.
Digital Libraries: Networks give students and staff access to digital resources
like books, research papers, and software.
Collaboration Tools: Students and teachers use network-based tools for
collaborative projects, discussion forums, and shared file storage.
3. Social Networking
Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter use large-scale
networks to allow users to communicate, share content, and interact with one
another worldwide.
Online Communities: Users engage in forums, chat rooms, and online gaming
through networked platforms.
4. Industrial and Manufacturing Applications
Automation: Networks connect sensors, machines, and control systems in
factories, allowing for automation and real-time monitoring of manufacturing
processes.
Supply Chain Management: Companies use networks to track inventory,
shipments, and coordinate with suppliers and distributors.
5. Healthcare Applications
Telemedicine: Networks allow doctors to consult with patients remotely, access
medical records, and share diagnostic images.
Medical Databases: Hospitals use networks to store and share patient
information, lab results, and medication histories.
6. Government and Military Applications
Communication Networks: Governments use secure networks for
communication between departments, agencies, and law enforcement.
Surveillance Systems: Security networks monitor public places with cameras
and other sensors.
Military Networks: The military employs specialized, encrypted networks for
secure communication and data transfer.

1.3 Network Software and Protocol Hierarchies

Network Software:
❖ Network software is a fundamental element for any networking
system. It helps administrators and security personnel reduce network
complexities, and manage, monitor, and better control network traffic.
Network software plays a crucial role in managing a network
infrastructure and simplifying IT operations by facilitating
communication, security, content, and data sharing.
 Network:

Connection of Several Computers.

Purpose:
✓ To Share the Resources.
✓ Sharing the files document.
✓ Sharing the Printers.
✓ Sharing the severs.

Functions of network software

• User management allows administrators to add or remove users from

the network. This is particularly useful when hiring or relieving

• File management lets administrators decide the location of data

storage and control user access to that data.

• Access enables users to enjoy uninterrupted access to network

resources.

• Network security systems assist administrators in looking after

security and preventing data breaches.

1.Protocal Hierachies
2.Network Architecture
3.Design Issue for Network Layers
4.Connection Oriented Vs Connection Services

In computer networking, protocols are sets of rules that govern how data is
transmitted and received between devices. These protocols are organized into
protocol hierarchies (also known as protocol stacks or layers), where each layer
handles specific tasks in data transmission. This layered architecture simplifies
the design of network communication by dividing complex functions into
manageable pieces.
The most common protocol hierarchy model is the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model, along with the widely used TCP/IP model.
A Protocol Hierarchy is a fixed set of rules and conventions that govern the
communication between two or more computers. The hierarchical structure
allows for modular design, interoperability, and ease of implementation in
computer networks.
What is Protocol?
 Protocal is a “Set of Rules “which are network Communication to
Connect Network Devices and Exchange Information Between Them.
A protocol is simply defined as a set of rules and regulations for data
communication. Rules are defined for every step and process at the time of
communication among two or more computers. Networks are needed to follow
these protocols to transmit the data successfully. All protocols might be
implemented using hardware, software, or a combination of both of them.
There are three aspects of protocols given below:
• Syntax – It is used to explain the data format that is needed to be sent or
received.
• Semantics – It is used to explain the exact meaning of each of the
sections of bits that are usually transferred.
• Timings – This is used to explain the exact time at which data is generally
transferred along with the speed at which it is transferred.
Protocol Hierarchies
Network Protocal are set of rules and regulation
Set of Protocal hierarchies its divides communication task with
different devices.
Set of rules and regulation within different Layers.
Protocal:
Is Nothing but set of rules used for Communication within the Layer.
Protocal Actually Outlines ===>1.WHAT
2.HOW
 3.WHEN
What data to Communicate
How to Communicate Data
When to Communicate Data
3 Aspects of Protocal : 1. Syntax =>Format
2.Semantic=>Meanning
3. Timming
Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of
hardware and software. For network design, various networks are organized and
arranged as a stack of layers of hardware and software, one on top of another. The
number, name, content, and function of each layer might vary and can be different
from one network to another. The main purpose of each layer is to provide
services to higher layers that are present. Every layer has some particular task or
function. The networks are organized and arranged as different layers or levels
simply to reduce and minimize the complexity of the design of network software.

Example of Protocol Hierarchy

Below is diagram representing a five-layer network. The diagram shows
communication between Host 1 and Host 2. The data stream is passed through a
number of layers from one host to other. Virtual communication is represented
using dotted lines between peer layers. Physical communication is represented
using solid arrows between adjacent layers. Through physical medium, actual
communication occurs. The layers at same level are commonly known as peers.
The peer basically has a set of communication protocols. An interface is present
between each of layers that are used to explain services provided by lower layer
to higher layer.

To Reduce Design Complexity, The Network are Divided into Layers.

Each Host Machine Connected in the Network Have Several Layers.
The Function of Each Layer Differ form Each Other , Each Lower Provides
Set of Sources to Higher Layer.
What is Network Topology?
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of Topology: physical and
logical topology.
Network Topology is the arrangement of the elements of communication
network (Links, nodes) etc.
Network topology used to define or describe the arrangement of various
types of Telecommunication Network including Command and Control
Radio network industrial field bases and computer network.
Network topology is the topological structure of network and may be
Physical or Logically.
Topology refers to the layout of connected devices on the network.
Some logical layout of the topology are there
Physical Topology:
• The Geographical Representation of all the neodes.
• Placement of various nodes.
Logical Topology:
 Deals with the data flow in the network.
Layout➔nodes.
• A topology is the layout of how a network communication with
different devices.
• Arrangement of nodes of computer network
Types of Network Topology
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.
There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring
Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

Types of Network Topology

Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes,
links, or devices in a computer network. It defines how these components are
connected and interact with each other. Understanding various types of network
topologies helps in designing efficient and robust networks. Common types
include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree topologies, each with its own advantages
and disadvantages. In this article, we are going to discuss different types of
network topology their advantages and disadvantages in detail.
Types of Network Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via
sender and receiver is referred to as Network Topology . The various network
topologies are:
• Point to Point Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Star Topology
• Bus Topology
• Ring Topology
• Tree Topology
• Hybrid Topology

1. BUS TOPOLOGY:

A Bus Topology consists of the single cable called Bus.

Connecting all the nodes on network without connectivity
devices.
A bus Topology is designed in such a way that all the stations
are connected through the single cable know as a Backbone
Cable.
The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 Ethernet and 802.4
standard network
The most common access method of the bus topology is
CSMA[carrier sense multiple access].
CSMA➔It is Media Access control. Used for control of the data
flow.
So that data integrity is maintained.
The package do not get lost.
Advantages:
• Easy to connect.
• Low Cost cable.
Disadvantages:
• Whole Network such down there is a break in a main
cable
2.Ring Topology:
A ring topology is a bus topology in a closed loop.
Peer-to-peer land Topology
Unidirectional
The sending and receiving the data takes place with the help of the tokens
A ring network is one where all the workstation and other devices are
connected in a continuous loop. There is no central sever.
All the nodes having the equal access with the closed way
All the nodes having the equal opportunity to send and receive the data

Advantages:
1.esay to install
2.esay to reconfigure
3fault identification is easy.
 Disadvantages:
1.Undirectional traffic
2.break in a ring can break the entire network.

3.star topology:
Every node is connected to the central node or hub or switch
Centralized management.
All the traffic must pass through the hub or switch.
The hub and switch are the central devices or a central node.
The transmission are occurred only though the central hub.
There is no traffic between the devices
When the device 1 was to send the data to device 2, first send the data to
device1 hub.

Advantage:
1.good option for a modern network
2.low startup cost
3.esay to manage
4. offers the opportunity to the expansion.
Disadvantage:
1.Hub is a single point cable than the bus
2.requires more cable than the bus
3.cost of installation is high.

4.Tree Topology:
➢ A Tree topology is special type of structure where many
connected elements are arranged like the branches of a
Tree.
➢ It is also Know as Hierarchical Topology
➢ The Topology Divides the network into multiple/layers
of network
➢ Tree topologies allow for the expansion of existing
network.
➢ A tree topology combines characteristics of bus and star
Topology
It consists of group of star configured workstations
connected to a bus backbone cable
Alternatively referred to as a star ,bus topology.
Tree topology is one of the most common network setups
that is similar to a bus topology and a star topology.
A tree topology connects multiple star networks to other
star networks.below is a visual example of a simple
computer setup on a network using the star topology
Advantages:
❑ Existing network can be easily expanded
❑ Well suited for temporary network.
Disadvantages:
❑ Heavily Cabled
❑ Costly
❑ If more nodes are added maintained is difficult
❑ Central hub fails, network fails

❑
5.Mesh Topology
➢ Each node is directly connected to every other nodes in the network.
➢ Fault Talerant and reliable.
➢ It is a point to point connection to other nodes or devices, traffic is
carried only between two devices
➢ Mesh has n(n-2)/2 Physical channels to link devices
➢ Here every device has a point to point link to every other device.
➢ Node 1 node must be connected with n-1 nodes

 Advantages:

❑ They use dedicated links so each link can only its own data load so that
traffic problem avoided.

❑ It is robust if any one link get damaged if cannot affect other.

❑ It gives privacy security.

❑ Fault identification and fault isolation are essay.

 Disadvantages:

❑ Hardware requires to connected each devices is highly expensive.

❑ The amount of cabling and the number of i/o ports requires are very
large. Since very device is connected to each devices through dedicated
links.
6.Hybrid Topology
➢ A network which contain all type of physical structure connected under a
single backbone channel
Point to Point Topology
Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of
the sender and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in
which one is the sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point
provides high bandwidth.

1.Point to point communication means the channel is shared between two

devices.
2. In this communication, There is dedicated link between two nodes.
3. In this communication, there is one transmitter and one receiver.
4. In point-to-point connections, the smallest distance is most important to
reach the receiver.
5. Point-to-point communication provides security and privacy because
communication channel is not shared.

1.4 Lan
Local area network
It is a network which is limited to a small geographical area such as home
or office or school
Very easy to design and maintained
It is used for connecting two or more personal computers. Through a
communication medium such as twisted pair etc.
 Lan Provide higher security.

WAN
It covers a larger geographical area such as state or country.
It is quite bigger network than the Lan
It is not limited to the central location but it is span over the large
geographical area through a telephone line, satellite links.

Pan:
Smallest computer network
 It has a connectivity range of upto 10 meters
Pan is used for connecting the computer device of personal use is know
as personal area of network
Devices may be connected through interconnected enable devices.

1.5 OSI Model

❖ The Purpose of the OSI model is to facilitate communication between
different system without requiring changes to the logic of the underlaying
hardware and software.
❖ OSI model stands for Open System Inter Connection.
❖ It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to
perform.
❖ It was developed by ISO (International Organization for standardization)
in the year 1984.
❖ All the 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit data form one person to
another across globe.
❖ It helps to transfer data between two devices that are connected over the
internet.
❖ It provide behind smooth and accurate functioning of the internet.
1.Physical Layer
❑ This is the last layer of the OSI model.
❑ The data is nothing but a sequence of binary zeros and ones.
❑ Physical layer converts this binary sequence into signals.
❑ These electrical signals can be transfer through wired or wireless mode.
❑ Like Coxial cable send this signals bit by bit mode. Optical fiber cable send
this signals in form of lights, radio waves send this singles through air in
wireless Formates etc.

2.Application Layer
❖ Here users directly interact with software
❖ It Provides the data, which has to be transferred over the network
 ❖ Provide Protocal services to all network application who required
network
❖ Links browers, Social Apps, Gaming Apps, File Transfer etc.
Example:
1. Finale Transfer: FTP Protocal
2. Internet Seaching: HTTP/ HTTPS Protocal

3. Session Layer
❑ Session Management:
❑ It establish use and terminate a connection between two devices
❑ It transfer data using checkpoints synchronization.
❑ Authentication:
❑ It is process of recognizing a user’s identify .Eg. Username and
Password.
❑ If record matches then session gets created between client and sever.
➢ Authorization:
❑ Giving user permission to access a specific resources, Function or
download file

Otherwise display the error “You are not Authorization person to access the file”

4.Transport Layer
1. Segmentation

 Data received form session layer gets divided into smallest units called
Segments.

 Each segments Source , Destination ,Port Number ,Sequence Number and

data unit

 Example for port Number : HTTP:80,HTTP:443,FTP:20

2.Flow Control:
  It control amount of data being transferred between sever and other
connection Devices. 3.Error Control:

 Some data doesn’t arrive at destination ,with help of Automatic Repeat

Request Schemes to retransmit the lost

 It ensures the message reach at the destination without any error

5.Network Layer
➢ It works on data segments form Transport layer ,Now is called as Packet .
➢ It works on two devices located in different Network .

1.Logical Addressing :

➢ Each device in a network has unique IP Address assigned to it.

➢ Network layers attaches the sender’s the sender’s as well as receiver ‘s IP
Addaress in Packet
2. Routing :
➢ To finds best physical path for the data to reach its destination .
➢ Example IP 1:192.168.2.1

 3. Path Determination

➢ two devices can be connected in many number of ways over the internet.
➢ Choosing the best possible way to connect two devices is called Path
dermination.

6. Data Link Layer

It helps to transfer data from one computer to another Using a local
medium such as a copper wire, cables, radio Signals,
Settellities.

7.Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer is the lowest layer at which application programmers
consider data structure and presentation, instead of simply sending data in the
form of datagrams or packets between hosts.

1.6 TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It
stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core
protocols of the Internet. This model defines how data is transmitted over
networks, ensuring reliable communication between devices. It consists of four
layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer, and the Application
Layer. Each layer has specific functions that help manage different aspects of
network communication, making it essential for understanding and working with
modern networks.

Application Layer (Session and Presentation)

➢ Interface between host and the services provided by Transpot layer.
➢ Includes high level protocals
1.TELNET➔Two way communication
2. FTP ➔ Transmitting the file data
 3.SMTP➔Transpot electronic mail

Transport Layer
➢ Segments ,Splitting of data
➢ Decides to send the data either in single path or multiple /parallel path.
➢ Break the data into small units which are handles efficiency by this layer

Header information added.

Host to Host Layer

➢ Used for Physical Transmission of data.
➢ Define a protocal to connect host.
 ➢ Main Protocal →IP
➢ Responsible to transmit packet independently
➢ Packet may not Received in the order that they have sent

Comparison Between OSI AND TCP