CSC215 Cosmat

CSC215
COMPUTER HARDWARE
DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY ABRAKA, NIGERIA
FACULTY OF SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
BY
DR. GRACIOUS C. OMEDE
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Course Guide for CSC215
INTRODUCTION
CSC215 – Computer Hardware is a 3-credit unit course. The course is a compulsory course in
the second semester. It will take you 15 weeks to complete the course. You are to spend 65
hours of study for a period of 13 weeks while the first week is for orientation and the last week
is for end of semester examination.
You will receive the course material which you can read online or download and read off-line.
All you need to know in this course is presented in the following subheadings.
Course Competencies
By the end of this course, you will gain competency to:
Understand, use, and work with computer hardware devices
Course Objectives
The course objectives are to:
Understand the standard computer system hardware architecture as explained by John Von
Neumman
Be familiar with diver computer hardware devices, components, interconnectivity, and
services
Understand the future trends of computer hardware advancement
Comprehend the fundamental computer hardware categories which include peripheral devices,
processing units, and memory or storage devices.
Working through this Course

The course is broadly divided into Modules, and subsequently into Units. The modules are
derived from the course competencies and objectives. The competencies will guide you through
on the knowledge you would acquire at the end of this course. So, as you work through the
course, reflect on the competencies to ensure mastery. The Units are components of the
Modules. Each Unit is discussed under the following headings, viz; introduction, intended
learning outcome(s), main content, self-assessment exercise(s), conclusion, summary, and
further readings. The Introduction addresses the expectations from the Unit topic. The intended
learning outcome(s) is the benchmark that evaluates your achievement at the end of the course.
Therefore, review the intended learning outcome(s) before going to the main content and at the
end of the unit, revisit the intended learning outcome(s) to check if you have achieved the
learning outcomes. Work through each Unit again if you have not understood the predetermined
learning outcomes.
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The main content is the body of knowledge in the Unit, which specifically addresses the
theoretical framework. Self-assessment exercises are significant parts of the content which
enable evaluation of the understanding of the course competencies. The conclusion expresses
the final notes achieved, while the summary presents the brief overview of the knowledge
discussed in the Unit. The last section on further readings provides sources of relevant literature,
books, and journals.
The Modules and Units are hereby enumerated as follows:
Module 1: Introduction to Computer Systems

Unit 1: Fundamentals of Computer Systems
Unit 2: Computer Software
Module 2: Computer Hardware Architecture
Unit 1: Von Neumann Computer Architecture
Unit 2: Central Processing Unit
Unit 3: Computer Data Storage and Memory Devices
Module 3: Computer Peripheral Devices
Unit 1: Input Devices
Unit 2: Output Devices
Module 4: Computer Hardware Components
Unit 1: System board - Motherboard
Unit 2: Microchips Technology
Module 5: Hardware Interconnectivity and Embedded Systems
Unit 1: Computer Networking
Unit 2: Multi-core Technology
Unit 3: Introduction to Embedded Systems
Module 6: Digital Systems
Unit 1: Introduction to Digital Systems
Unit 2: Cloud Computing
There are six modules and fourteen units in this course. Each unit represent a week of study or
combined.
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COURSE INFORMATION
COURSE CODE CSC215
COURSE TITLE COMPUTER HARDWARE
COURSE UNIT 3
SEMESTER SECOND
COURSE DURATION 13 WEEKS
REQUIRED HOURS FOR STUDY 65
COURSE LECTURER ENGR. DR. GRACIOUS C. OMEDE
COMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT,
DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY ABRAKA.
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CONTENTS
Contents
INTRODUCTION 4
COURSE INFORMATION 12
CONTENTS 13
COURSE DETAILS 14
Module 1: Introduction to Computer Systems 14
Unit 1: Fundamentals of Computer Systems 14
Unit 2: Computer Software 24
Module 2: Computer Hardware Architecture 28
Unit 1: Von Neumann Computer Architecture 28
Unit 2: Central Processing Unit 34
Unit 3: Computer Data Storage and Memory Devices 38
Module 3: Computer Peripheral Devices 46
Unit 1: Input Devices 46
Unit 2: Output Devices54
Module 4: Computer Hardware Components 60
Unit 1: System board - Motherboard 60
Unit 2: Microchips Technology 66
Module 5: Hardware Interconnectivity and Embedded Systems 71
Unit 1: Computer Networking 71
Unit 2: Multi-core Technology 78
Unit 3: Introduction to Embedded Systems 83
Module 6: Digital Systems 86
Unit 1: Introduction to Digital Systems 86
Unit 2: Cloud Computing 91
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COURSE DETAILS
Module 1: Introduction to Computer Systems

Unit 1: Fundamentals of Computer Systems
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of a Computer
3.2 Descriptions of Computer Systems
3.3 Classifications and types of Computer Systems
3.4 Historical Generation Advancement of computer systems
3.5 Comparison between Hardware and Software
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
7.0 References and Further Reading
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1.0 Introduction
Today, almost everyone uses computers directly or indirectly to solve diverse problems
ranging from word processing to internet-based applications. For instance, your access to
this course material is through the use of computers and computer applications. This
course is about the study computer hardware, which is the physical part of the computer
system. This module addresses the introductory theories about computer systems. It also
deals with interconnectivity and relationship with the major modules of a standard
computer system. In this Unit, we shall discuss some fundamental concepts relating to a
computer system. The Unit also explains the computer device and system configuration.
By the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

Understand the concepts of computer systems
Observe the interconnectivity of subsystems in a computer system
Main contents
Definition of a Computer
A computer can be described as an electronic device that can receive data, process the
data, and produce the result as the outcome. Conventionally, the received data is known
as input while the result of the processing is known as output or information. A computer
also has the capability of storing data and/or information in its memory for future use.
This relationship is illustrated in Figure 1.
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

(DATA) (INFORMATION)
(Computer)
Figure 1 Computer Device Data Flow Process
Basically, a computer is divided into two major parts, namely, hardware and software.
This configuration is like the division of human being into body and spirit/soul. That is,
the body is the hardware while the software is the spirit or soul. While the hardware, the
physical or most visible part is tangible, the software is intangible. Normally, the
software resides and operates within the hardware. Essentially, hardware the physical
part of the computer while the software is the code that runs on the computer.
Computers are capable of processing numerical data in form of 0’s and 1’s or simply in
binary digital format. This digital format is the basis of the machine language which
differs from human-readable languages. They can solve repetitive computational jobs
with high level of accuracy and timeliness depending on the software capability.
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3.2 Description of a Computer System
A computer system involves a complete suite of hardware and software resources as well
as the users that operate the computer system. While a computer system does the basic
function of a computer device, different kinds of computer systems can handle certain
specific additional functionalities. This will be addressed later in this Module.
Ideally, a full-fledged computer system is made up of users, application software,
systems software, operating system and hardware as shown in Figure 2.
Users
Application
Software
Systems software
Operating system
Hardware
Figure 2 Architecture of a Computer System
In Figure 2, each of the computer system parts is known as a subsystem. In this case, a
subsystem is made up of more than one component. For instance, the users’ subsystem
comprises expert users, programmers/developers, and end-users.
The main focus of this course is the hardware subsystem. It is the bedrock of other
subsystems.
3.3 Classifications and Types of computers
You must have been aware that many kinds and types of computers exist for different
applications and computational needs. Can you identify some of these? Essentially,
computers while maintaining their basic functionalities, can be categorized according to
their processing power, internal design, applicability, and physical size. These categories
are as follows:
Personal computers
Personal computers, popularly shortened as PC, are common, cheaper, versatile, small
and portable in sizes. They are single-user computer based on different kinds of
microprocessors. Laptops are kinds of PCs that consume less power due to their
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miniaturized integrated internal components. We shall discuss about processors and their
types later in this course.
Today, many students, office workers and business people use personal computer to
carry out many tasks. Such tasks include word processing, graphical designs, desktop
publishing, accounting operations, spreadsheets, video editing, teleconferencing among
others.
It should be noted that the specifications of personal computers have evolved over the
years due to explosion in human population, advancement in software and hardware
components.
Workstations
These computers are relatively more powerful than PCs in terms of computational
capability. They are also single-user based. Although, a workstation is like a personal
computer, however it has a higher specifications and better quality. These high-end
computers are often used to execute complex and large computational jobs in lesser time,
so they are usually more costly than PCs. These types of computers are found in research
laboratories, research institutions, universities, Space, automotive, and manufacturing
industries.
Note that the specifications of workstation computers have also evolved over the years
due to software and tasks requirements.
Minicomputers
Minicomputers are multi-users-based computers. They support a large array of users
concurrently and are usually able to handle larger complex or/and large computational
jobs. PCs and workstations are usually connected to minicomputers in a network for the
joint execution of tasks, processes, and programs. Minicomputers are not portable, they
belong to large organizations such as the Nigerian National Space Research and
Development Agency (NASRDA), National Identity Management Commission (NIMC),
Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), national astronautics and space administration (NASA),
European Space Agency (ESA), among others. During your next industrial training, you
may wish to visit such organization to see such computers.
It should be noted that the specifications of minicomputers computers have also evolved
over the years due to software and hardware advancement.
Mainframe
Mainframe computers are larger, expensive and more powerful multi-user systems. They
simultaneously support thousands of users than minicomputers. They have higher
specifications in terms of processing speed and storage. They are quite huge and
expensive. Mainframe computers are mostly found in large corporations, enterprises and
government organizations where many IT professionals and workers use them
simultaneously to solve grand challenge computational problems
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They are designed to perform large numbers of calculations for governments and large
enterprises
It should be noted that the specifications of mainframe computers have also evolved over
the years. International Business Machine (IBM) is one of the earliest manufacturers of
computer systems. Figure 3 shows the System z9 computer which was a line of
mainframe manufactured by IBM in 2005.
Figure 3 IBM System z9
Supercomputer
Although, these computers are similar to mainframe, they are extremely the fastest and
can be used to perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second. They are
designed to solve grand challenge problems that are often data- and computationally
intensive, such as DNA sequencing/human genome, Space exploration, Mars mission,
national population census, national electoral system, national database systems, banking
applications and database, health informatics, etc. A typical supercomputer can solve up
to ten trillion individual calculations per second.
It is important to note that the specifications of supercomputers have also evolved over
the years. Usually, supercomputers are the most powerful computers that exist at a time
in human history. Today, China and USA are the leading manufacturers and users of
supercomputers in the world. This fact is available at the https://www.top500.org/
website.
Till early 2021, Fugaku, the Chinese exascale systems was known to be the world's
fastest supercomputer on Top500. As at this press time, the Intel and Cray of the
Argonne National Laboratory is working hard on the design and development of Aurora
as the fastest supercomputer to be commissioned in late 2022. The project is under the
sponsorship of the United States Department of Energy. Figure 4 show a typical
structure of a computer system.
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Figure 4 Computer system
These categories of computers spread across the generational phases and development of
computer systems of all history.
3.4 Historical Generations Advancements of Computers

Computer history specifically dated back to 1833 when Charles Babbage, a
mathematician, invented the first runner of digital programmable and generalpurpose
computers. Barely, a century later, Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
(ENIAC) was invented by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, this computer was
the first general-purpose electronic computer.
Obviously, the entire history of mainly computer hardware advancements were distinctly
partitioned into time-frame, periods, or generations according to a specific range of
advancements. The generations are as follows:
First Generation: 1940-1956

This generation showcased the use of vacuum tubes for logic circuitry through the flow
of electrical current. Magnetic drums were used for data transfer and storage. During this
period, machine language was developed for systematic programming. ENIAC was
among the systems developed during this period. The drawbacks of the systems include
slower speed, excessive heat, and high cost. Figure 5 shows a typical first generation
computer.
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Figure 5 First Generation Computers
Second Generation: 1957-1963

In this generation, transistors were used as the major switching devices thus making
computers smaller, faster and energy-efficient. The programming format was assembly
languages. Figure 6 shows a typical second generation computer.
Figure 6 Second Generation Computer
Third Generation 1964-1971

Integrated circuits (IC) were developed and used as the switching devices for the flow of
data. A single IC contains several numbers of transistors, capacitors, and resistors in the
entire circuitry. Thus, computers became smaller in size, faster in processing and
generally efficient. High level programming languages were also introduced during this
period. Figure 7 shows a typical third generation computer.
Prominent computers in the third generation were PDP (Personal Data Processor), IBM-
168/360/370 series, Honeywell-6000 series
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Figure 7 Third Generation computer
Fourth Generation Computers 1972-1990

The fourth-generation computers were based on the successful invention and
development of microprocessors as the central processing units (CPU). Personal and
portable computers were manufactured due to the production of miniatured computing
components. As a result, the Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits technology was
implemented in the design of the microprocessors and other kinds of switching devices.
Intel was the first company to design and develop microprocessors. The details of
microprocessor or CPU will be discussed later in this course. Efficient high-level
programming languages were also developed such as Java, C++, C#, VB.NET among
others. Figure 8 shows a typical example of the fourth Generation Computer.
Figure 8 Fourth Generation Computers
Fifth Generation Computers 1990 to date
The computers of this generation are designed based on superconductors, VLSI,

miniaturized components, multi-core technologies, and artificial intelligence. Future
computers will advance more on machine learning, expert systems, natural language
processing, neural networks, advanced parallel computation, robotics, and fuzzy logic
designs. Virtual reality, fault-tolerance, and artificial intelligence will dominate the
hardware and software designs of fifth-generation computers.
The robots are being manufactured as computing devices that can replace human beings
to work in difficult, dangerous, and boring environments with less human intervention.
Examples of these robots are satellites, Sophia, robocop, mars rover, among others. Find
out what these robots do and identify other kinds of robots. Figures 9 and 10 show
examples of the fifth generation computers.
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Figure 9 Fifth generation computer - Laptop
Figure 10 Fifth generation computer - Robot
3.5 Comparison between Hardware and Software
Table 1 in this section shows the comparison between hardware and software.
Table 1 The comparison of hardware to software

Hardware Software
Hardware is a tangible physical Software is a set of instruction or codes that

parts computer system control the functions of a computer
Hardware devices are

Software are developed
manufactured
Hardware cannot function without

software.
software needs hardware to operate
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As Hardware are physical
electronic devices, we can see and
We can see and also use the software but
touch hardware.
can’t actually touch them.
Von Neumman architecture for

computer framework
This adopts software models
computer viruses do not affect

computer
Computer viruses can corrupt codes
Yes, hardware can do not bare
It can be downloaded, copy and transfer
metals
If hardware is damaged, it can be When software is damaged, corrupt it can

replaced with a new one recovery from backup or the nendows
Examples include Keyboard,

Mouse,
Monitor, Printer, CPU, Hard disk, Examples include Ms Word, Excel, Power
RAM, ROM etc. Point, Photoshop, MySQL etc.
4.0 Conclusion
A computer has been described as an electronic device that is capable of receiving data,
processing the data and generating the output result in a timely manner. A computer
system comprises software and hardware. Some basic categories of computers include
supercomputers, mainframe, minicomputer, desktop computers, and personal computers.
5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about some fundamental concepts of a computer system.
What is a computer?
Mention some tasks which computers can be used for
Describe a computer system
Advancements in computer hardware are the major causes of different generations in
computer history. Discuss.
7.0 References / Literature

Price, Derek de S. (1984). "A History of Calculating Machines". IEEE Micro. 4 (1): 22–
52. doi:10.1109/MM.1984.291305
Őren, Tuncer (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus
to Holonic Agents" (PDF). Turk J Elec Engin. 9 (1): 63–70.
https://www.top500.org/
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Unit 2: Computer Software
Content
1.0 Introduction
Do you realize that computer hardware cannot work without software? You have learned
from the Unit 1 that software is the soul or intangible component of the computer
system. When you drive your motor car, you are able to control the operations and
direction of movement of the car. That is what a software does exactly to the computer
hardware. In this Unit 2, we shall study about the detailed professional description of
software and the types that are available to the users. It is certain that you have used
some of several kinds of software directly or indirectly over the years. Relax well as we
discuss this important subject matter in computer systems.

Understand the definition and relevance of computer software
Know some types of computer software
Main Content
Descriptions of Computer Software

Software can simply be described as a set of codes or programs involving a combination
of well-defined instructions, scripts, procedures, documentations, and data that can
manipulate and execute predefined tasks on a computer system. These tasks also include
the control of functionalities of the computers or computing devices in handling jobs
according to the programming. The computing devices include PCs, tablets, PDA,
Automated teller machines, mobile phones, smart TVs, and other microcontroller-based
embedded systems or smart devices.
Basically, computer hardware devices cannot operate or function without software. This
inter-relationship between hardware and software is as shown in figure 2.0. You need to
also understand that a software suite comprises programs, also known as a set of codes,
design specifications, documentation, and users’ manuals.
Types of Computer Software

Since the inception of the computer age, there are have been several kinds of software
serving different purposes ranging from hardware control, users’ operations,
management of hardware to the entire system control. Most times, the users, developers,
manufacturers and programmers determine the availability of different kinds of software
that are used in the computer systems.
Generally, software can be classified into application software, system software utility
software, operating system and firmware. All these forms of software are available in
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computer systems and software engineering environment so as to support ICT facilities,
computer users, programmers, developers among others. Figure 11 shows the
classifications of software. Let us go through all these now.
Software
Application Utility software Firm ware

Software
Systems software Operating system
Figure 11 Classifications of Computer Software
Operating system
An operating system software is a software that interfaces between system hardware,
application software and the users. It is analogous to a company secretary or receptionist
that interact between the guests and other workers or offices of the organization. On
arrival, the guests may be directed to appropriate employee or office that can meet the
needs of the guests. Thus, without the roles of operating systems the computer hardware
cannot be operated, controlled and manipulated by the users. The effective
communication between hardware and users is very important for both parties.
Essentially, the operating systems enable the management of all the computer resources.
These resources include memory, files, processes, peripheral devices, security features,
processors, storage devices, networking functionalities, job scheduling among others.
Operating systems (OS) can be broadly categorized as single-users and multi-users.
While a single-users OS allows one user at time, a multi-users OS allows more than one
user to operate a computer at a time. We also have single-tasking and multitasking
operating systems. Tasks are processes or jobs running by the computer central
processing unit. Now, you should be able differentiate between singletasking, and multi-
tasking. A single-user OS may be either single-tasking e.g. (MS Windows 95) or multi-
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tasking (e.g. MS Windows 7, 8, 9,10,11). MS here means Microsoft, one of the
prominent software developer companies in the world today.
Examples of single-users operating systems are MS-DOS, Windows 95, Windows NT,
Windows 2000, Microsoft Windows 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, etc.
Examples of multi-users operating systems are Mainframes, IBM AS400, Linux & Unix
Distributed OS, etc.
Application software
An application (app) software is a computer program suite specifically designed and
developed to solve a certain problem, perform a job or execute an activity in various
human endeavours. Mostly, applications manipulate or work on data, text, numbers,
audio, graphics, and video with respect to the objectives of the operations.
Examples of application software are MS Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Google Chrome,
Photoshop, MySQL etc.
Firmware
Firmware is a kind of software that enables the low-level control for a specific
microcontroller-based hardware device. Firmware software are mostly used for
embedded systems operations and control. Today, many electrical/electronic appliances
such as washing machines, air conditioning units among others have firmware running in
their computing systems.
4.0 Conclusion
It is important to note that a computer system or computing device is broadly divided
into hardware and software. While hardware refers to the physical components or parts,
the software is the soft part, non-tangible, or simply codes and programs that drive the
hardware. The computer hardware machines cannot function without the software. Thus,
the software helps to achieve the functions a computer. Types of software include
systems software, operating systems, application software and utility software.
5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about software, types of software and software
applications.

Give some analogies of computer software ✓ What are the roles of computer software?
State some examples of computer software
Distinguish between firmware and operating systems
Stallings (2005). Operating Systems, Internals and Design Principles. Pearson: Prentice
Hall.
Gagne, Silberschatz Galvin (2012). Operating Systems Concepts. New York: Wiley. p.
716. ISBN 978-1118063330.
https://www.webopedia.com/definitions/software/
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Module 2: Computer Hardware Architecture

Unit 1: Von Neumann Computer Architecture
Content
1.0 Introduction
In the last Module, you learned about computers functions and the types of computers. In
this module, we shall study deeper the architectural design, layout, nature, and structure
of a computer system. In 1945, the well-known and most acceptable standard
architecture for all digital computer systems was designed and published by John Von
Neumann, a Hungarian mathematician who also doubled as a physicist. This man was
thus the architecture is tagged Von Neumann architecture.

Understand the marketecture of computer systems
Peruse the detailed component of the computer system
Main Content
Von Neumann Computer Architecture

Von Neumann architecture described the digital-based computer hardware as a system
comprising the following major parts
System Unit
System board
Central Processing unit
Ports
Input Devices
Output Devices
Memory
Secondary storage
Communication devices
The functionality of these aforementioned parts is a similitude to the joint operation of
the human body. Our brain is the central processing unit, our legs and hands are the
input/output devices. Can you guess what the memory devices may refer to?
Figure 12 shows the pictorial description of the Von Neumann architecture that serves as
the basis for all digital computer systems.
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Figure 12 Von Neumann Computer Architecture
In Figure 12, the central processing unit, popularly known as CPU for short, comprises
of the control unit, arithmetic/logic unit and processor registers. The computer system
operations are also controlled by the peripheral devices which are basically known as the
input and output devices.
We shall discuss the details of these component parts in the following modules
3.2 System Unit

The system unit houses all the internal components of a computer system. These internal
components include the system board, also known as the motherboard, the power supply
unit, fixed hard drives, communication buses among others. Figures 12 and 14 show the
illustrations of computer system unit.
Label
Monitor
Motherboard
CPU
RAM
Expansion cards
Power supply
Optical disc drive
Hard disk drive 9. Keyboard
10. Mouse.
Figure 13 Personal computer hardware
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Figure 14 System unit of a personal computer
The entire system unit of a personal computer is often located in a plastic or metallic
case or enclosure. Such personal computers are desktops, laptops, and palmtops. The
desktop PC case, which is usually designed to be placed on desks, can either be in the
tower or flat shape. Nowadays, there are compact, all-in-one desktop system units
having all the peripheral devices integrated together. Such all-in-one systems are
manufactured by Dell, HP, and Apple (iMac). Most high-performance computer servers
and workstations are available in bigger, rack and tower shapes.
Power supply unit

The computer power supply module which is located in the system unit case enables the
conversion from 100-240V alternating current to low-voltage direct current voltage to
power the internal components according to the requirement specifications. Some
systems like laptops have the in-built batteries for power backup when utility power
supply fails.
System upgrade
The computer system upgrade often refers to improvement on the hardware and software
resource specifications so as to enhance the system capability and overall performance.
For instance, in terms of hardware, the RAM size, HDD/SSD capacity, visual display
unit, and CPU can be enhanced. In most cases the software and hardware advancements
must match. For instance, it is advisable that the 64-bit software should run on the 64-bit
processor, otherwise there may be a speed mismatch, error in computation, or operation
failure.
An expansion card, which is a printed circuit board, can be inserted plugged via its
socket into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard through the data bus according
to the required need of the computer system. Graphics, visual display unit, sound,
networks subsystems all have either in-built connections on the motherboard or
expansion cards.
3.3 Computer Communication Buses

The name bus is an analogy derived from vehicle buses to transport human beings from
one place to the other as shown in Figure 15. Computer bus lines, wire, or cables are
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electrical data paths through which bits of information are transmitted between the CPU
and other components. They are communication cables and devices that enable data
transfer among the internal and external components or parts of a computer system.
Buses are also both hardware and software-based. Hardware buses include wires, optical
fibre, etc. while software-based buses include communication protocols. The CPU word
size, also known as the bus size refers to the number of
bits that can be transmitted at once. In general, this should be the same as. Figures 16
and 17 show some common types of communication buses within computer systems.
Figure 15 A vehicle bus for human transportation
Figure 16 A computer bus for data transfer
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Figure 17 Computer bus for data transfer between the motherboard and RAM
Historically, computer buses were initially made up of parallel electrical wires involving
several connections of hardware devices. Today, computer communication buses also
include parallel and serial physical arrangements that support the logical functions.
Computer buses are simply wired in a daisy or multidrop arrangement as in universal
serial bus or switch connections.
4.0 Conclusion
The Von Neumman computer architecture is the most acceptable standard of computer
systems parts and connections upon which computer digital systems are based. The
CPU, peripheral and storage devices are the main parts well revealed by this standard
architecture. The computer communication buses are essential for data transfer among
the computer hardware resources.
5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about computer hardware architecture. Lessons learned
include the Von Neumann architecture with respect to the interconnectivity of the major
parts of computers via different kinds of data buses.

With the aid of a well-annotated diagram, explain the main components of the Von
Neumann computer architecture
Explain the concept of data communication buses
Marilyn Wolf, in Computers as Components (Fourth Edition), 2017

https://www.computerscience.gcse.guru/topic/hardware
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/basics_of_computer_science/basics_of_computer_scie
nce_types.htm
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Linda Null; Julia Lobur (2006). The essentials of computer organization and architecture
(2nd ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp. 33, 179–181. ISBN 978-0-76373769-6
Unit 2: Central Processing Unit

Content
1.0 Introduction
In this Unit, we shall explain the roles and functions of the main internal
component of the computer system, which is the Central Processing Unit
(CPU). The CPU is metaphorically referred to as the hearth-beat or brains of the
computers. The CPU carries out the execution of computer instructions or programs and
the manipulation of data. It also controls the functions of other parts of the computer so
as to enable the smooth running of the entire computer system. The CPU is also known
as the processor, microprocessor or central processor of the computer.

Comprehend the central processing unit of the computer systems
Understand the roles and functions of system CPU
Know some types of CPUs
Main Content
Central Processing Unit

The central processing unit (CPU), also known as the processor is an electronic chip of
an integrated circuit that control the computer and also performs arithmetic logical
operations. The main function of the CPU in a computer system is to receive, implement
and execute all the instruction codes received from the computer hardware and software.
The CPU on the satellite onboard computer is popularly known as the central terminal
unit. The CPU on the graphic adapter of an image processing computer system is known
as the graphic processing unit. All these variants have the same functions and
architecture. Figure 18 shows the computer CPU.
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Figure 18 The computer CPU
The CPU comprises of the control unit (CU), arithmetic and logical unit (ALU),
processor registers, and the program counter. Figure 19 shows the block diagram of the
CPU and its internal components.
Figure 19 Block diagram of the CPU and its internal components.
How the CPU works

The figure shows that the CPU receives data through input devices and stores it in the
memory. The control unit thereafter extracts the data from the memory according to the
instructions. Consequently, the ALU executes necessary arithmetic and logical
operations on the data manipulations. These operations include addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. The result of the computations is stored in memory and
finally sent out as output via the output devices. The control unit basically deciphers and
carries out the pre-defined instructions or programs.
The word size refers to the number of bits of data a CPU can process at once. Today, due
to advancement in hardware technology 64 bits is the standard word size for CPU's used
in personal computers, the older CPU used 32 bits. The overall speed of a CPU in
executing programs is proportional to its word size.
Different CPUs have different types of instructions, so software made for one type of
CPU will not run on other kinds.
The Intel Pentium and PowerPC are common examples of processors for IBMPCs and
Macintoshes respectively.
Generally, the CPU is usually located at the center of the computer motherboard as
shown in Figure 20. The CPU is usually cooled by a heat sink and fan often mounted on
top of it. Most newer CPUs include an on-die Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) and co-
processor for graphic and mathematical processing respectively.
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Figure 20 The CPU inside the computer motherboard
3.2 ALU
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) component uses a combinational digital circuit to
perform bitwise operations and arithmetic calculations on integer binary numbers. The
ALU does not operate on other fixed- or floating-point numbers. It is a key component
structure of several kinds of computing circuits, including the CPU and GPUs. The ALU
operates on the operands and codes which are the inputs as the data for the system.
Subsequently, this generates the output of the executed operations through the status
input/output which provides information about the operations. This is achieved by the in-
build external status registers.
3.3 Micro-controller or system-on-chip

The microcontroller is a complete computer on one chip, simply known as systemon-a-
chip (SoC). It is a small chip with all the required electronic components, CPU, RAM,
storage, and other circuitry in a specific device. Examples of the applications include a
smartphone or portable computer, on a single slab of an integrated circuit, car,
microwave, thermostat among others. For instance, arduino computer on a board has a
microcontroller chip.
4.0 Conclusion
The CPU is an integral part of the computer hardware. It is conspicuously located at the
centre of the motherboard. The computer CPU enables the control of the hardware
resources and also carries out the arithmetic and logical operations of the system. The
micro-controller is simply the complete computer on a small single slab of an electronic
chip.
5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learnt about the CPU and micro-controller.
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Describe the functionalities of the CPU
Identify the components of the CPU
Define a micro-controller
A.P.Godse; D.A.Godse (2009). "3". Digital Logic Design. Technical Publications. pp. 9–
3. ISBN 978-81-8431-738-1.
Hwang, Enoch (2006). Digital Logic and Microprocessor Design with VHDL.
Thomson. ISBN 0-534-46593-5
Thomas Willhalm; Roman Dementiev; Patrick Fay (December 18, 2014). "Intel
Performance Counter Monitor – A better way to measure CPU utilization".
software.intel.com. Retrieved February 17, 2015.
Liebowitz, Kusek, Spies, Matt, Christopher, Rynardt (2014). VMware vSphere

Performance: Designing CPU, Memory, Storage, and Networking for Performance-
Intensive Workloads. Wiley. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-118-00819-
5.
Regan, Gerard (2008). A Brief History of Computing. p. 66. ISBN 9781848000834.

Retrieved 26 November 2014.
Unit 3: Computer Data Storage and Memory Devices

Content
1.0 Introduction
In this Unit, we shall deal with computer data memory or storage devices.
These are significant media components of the computer system used for recording or
retaining all forms of digital data. Every computer system requires several different
levels of memory for storing system data, users’ data, programs, and instruction sets
either temporarily or permanently. The two keywords here are memory and storage,
which slightly refer to different things. While the memory devices store data for a
shortterm for immediate access, the storage devices store data long-term for permanent
access. Long-term storage is also known as persistent storage duration. The data, in this
case, refers to documents, applications, programs, codes, and operating systems.
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Computer memory can be classified into either primary and secondary or fixed and
removable devices.

Understand the computer memory organization and architecture
Know some types of memory storage devices
Main Content
Primary Main Memory

The rimary memory chips which are directly accessible by the CPU, is the main primary
memory of the computer. The access speed of the main memory is faster than any other
kinds storage devices. Examples of primary memory devices are Random Access
Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM). Both of them are made up of solid-
state materials.
Figure 21 shows different types of memory and storage devices available in computer
systems. Let us discuss some of these storage devices in detail.
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Figure 21 Computer memory and storage devices
Random Access Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM), is a main memory or primary storage that has
capability of holding the loaded data, instructions, operating system and all running
application, processes and other programs only during execution, that is, when the
computer system is running and powered by electricity. RAM behaves like a scratchpad
memory or whiteboard. temporary, it is a working storage area of bytes under the
supervision of the CPU. RAM stores entire data temporarily. For instance, if you type
your CV on MS Word without saving it with a file name, it remains inside the RAM
while your computer keeps working. If the power is turned off in the process, your data
and program will be erased automatically. Then you will lose your documents or data.
This means RAM is not persistent, its contents are dependent on power supply.
Therefore, always save up your document while working and making updates.
A good feature of RAM is about faster speed of access because its contents are being
actively manipulated by the CPU. It is able to access and retrieve the value of any
particular byte in a few nanoseconds (1 nanosecond is 1 billionth of a second). RAM is
more than 1000x faster than the fastest secondary storage.
Usually, RAM is designed and manufacture with a few chips packaged together onto an
integrated circuit, a popular example of this is the dual inline memory module (DIMM)
that can be inserted into the motherboard socket as shown in Figure 22.
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The two common types of RAM are static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM).
SRAM
This is a kind of RAM that uses flip-flops transistor or Mosfet (MOS) as switching
devices. Its access speed is fast but more expensive. Example of SRAM is cache
memory.
DRAM
Dynamic RAM uses capacitors as switching devices to store. The capacitors charges
when data is 1 and do not charge when the data is 0. Unlike SRAM, DRAM requires
refreshing circuits for the data refreshment so as to avoid current leakage. Usually, it is
slower but cheaper thank SRAM. Most computer main memory is made up of DRAM
due to higher access time.
Figure 22 Random Access Memory in a motherboard
Read-Only Memory
The Read-Only Memory (ROM) chip is a type of primary memory that stores the basic
input/output system (BIOS) information that runs when the computer is booting or
starting. They are non-volatile memory that generally contains instructions for booting
the computer or loading the operating system. This information is in boot and power
management firmware. Modern motherboards apply Unified Extensible Firmware
Interface (UEFI) instead of BIOS.
The flash chips are non-volatile devices that do not require electricity. They are used in
computers, cell phones, digital cameras, etc.
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The cache memory is special high-speed memory that temporarily stores instructions and
data that the CPU is using frequently, Thus speeding up the processing. The Level 2 or
external caches generally range in size from 64 Kilobytes to 2 Megabytes.
3.2 Secondary Storage Devices

A secondary storage device can be described as a persistent or non-volatile medium that
can save up data for a long time until it is overwritten, deleted, or corrupted. These
storage devices can either be fixed or removable. Examples of secondary storage devices
are Hard Disk Drive (HDD) and Solid State Drive (SSD). The removable USB flash
drive and optical compact disks can be used to copy or transfer data between computers.
The fixed drives are usually permanently connected to the system unit of the computer.
HDD and SSD are often connected to the motherboard through communication cables.
HDD is capable of using its read/write heads to store digital data on a magnetic surface
of a rigid plate. HDD physical size is usually 3½ and 2½ inches for desktops and laptops
respectively. These types of storage devices shall be discussed as follows;
Compact Disc, DVD, Blu-ray are examples of optical external storage devices while
USB Flash Drives are made up of solid-state materials. Flash drives as also known as
thumb drives or USB-key.
Difference between Hard drives and Solid State Drives

A solid-state drive (SSD) is a secondary storage device that implements an array of
integrated circuits to store data persistently. Hard disk drives are found in virtually all
older computers, due to their high capacity and low cost, but solidstate drives are faster
and more power-efficient but more expensive. Flash drives are removable and external
SSD. They consume less power, and they are usually faster and cheaper than hard disk
drives. Technologically, hard drives store bytes of data as a magnetic pattern on a
spinning metal disk in high pitch spinning sound. The solid-state drives that store bytes
on flash chips, do not have spinning parts but use silicon chips and electrons.
Today, high-performance computer clusters use disk array controllers for greater
reliability, security, and massive storage. Figure 23 shows Hard Disk Drive for
persistent storage.
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Figure 23 Hard Disk Drive for persistent storage
Figure 24 and 25 shows USB flash drive or Optical disc which can be used to transfer
data between computers via the USB port. They are compatible with most hardware and
software specifications.
Figure 24 Removable Flash Drive for persistent storage
Figure 24 Removable Flash Drive for persistent storage
Flash drive
Figure 25 shows the SD Card which provides storage in devices like cameras. This looks
similar to the USB flash drive.
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Figure 25 SD memory flash
Other types of removable secondary storage devices are as follows

Compact disc (CD) is a circular thin platted glass and plastic polycarbonate material of a
standard size of 12 cm with a hole in the center of about 1.5 cm and 1.2 mm in thickness.
The CD has a storage capacity of 600 MB to 700 MB of data, this technological product
is much older, the new ones will be discussed shortly. CD uses optical laser technology
instead of magnetic technology to store its contents. Figure 26 shows bottom surface of a
12 cm compact disc.
Figure 26 Bottom surface of a 12 cm compact disc
Types of Compact discs are:

Compact disc Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM): The contents of the CD-ROM cannot be
deleted by any means. Only the publisher is allowed to access the data imprinted on this
CD. It is mostly used to store or copy small size documents or software applications.
CD-Recordable (CD-R): The contents can be stored once and read several times. Just
like CD-ROM, its contents cannot be deleted or overwritten.
CD-RW (CD-Rewritable): The contents of CD-RW can be erased or rewritten several
times.
Digital Video/Versatile Disc (DVD): This type has a higher storage capacity ranging
from 4.7GB to 17GB depending on whether it is a single or dual-layer format. The
storage capacity of a DVD with a one-sided layer is 4.7 GB, the one-sided double layer
is 8.5 GB, the double-sided layer is 9.4 GB, and the double-sided double-layer is 17 GB.
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DVD-ROM: The contents of this type of media cannot be written on or erased by the
user. It is mostly used for distributing proprietary software or other kinds of applications.
DVD-R / DVD+R: These two different types of discs, DVD-R (DVD minus R) and
DVD+R (DVD plus R) are recordable once.
DVD-RW / DVD+RW: The contents can be re-written several times.
DVD-RAM: This is a rewritable disc that can alter its contents several times. It functions
like hard disks.
A Floppy disk is an old, portable, and removable platter storage device that was made of
magnetizable mylar plastic. The data is stored in concentric rings called tracks on either
side of the platter. The last kind of floppy disk was is a 3½ inches platter in a hard plastic
case that holds 1.44 Megabytes of information. A Zip disk, on the other hand, could hold
up to 250 Megabytes.
Magnetic tape, which was developed in Germany in 1928, is a medium for magnetic
wire data recording. It was made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip
of plastic film. Tape recorders and video tape recorders are used to record and playback
audio and video respectively. The tape drive stores computer data on magnetic tape.
4.0 Conclusion
The storage or memory devices are integral parts of a computer system. The devices can
be categorized into primary and secondary which can be either fixed or removable. RAM
and ROM are primary memory while HDD and SSD are types of secondary non-volatile
storage devices. The removable storage devices are USB drives, flash drives, and
compact disc drives. The required types and capacity of drives needed for a computer
system is a function of the well-configured system specification, cost, and the desired
performance.
5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about different kinds of memory and storage devices.
Quite some examples were also stated.

Distinguish between persistent and non-persistent storage of data
Differentiate between Hard disk drive and solid-state drive
List some types of compact discs you know
Why is the manufacturing of floppy drives discontinued?

Liebowitz, Kusek, Spies, Matt, Christopher, Rynardt (2014). VMware vSphere
Performance: Designing CPU, Memory, Storage, and Networking for
PerformanceIntensive Workloads. Wiley. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-118-00819-5.
https://www.computerscience.gcse.guru/theory/memory-and-storage
Module 3: Computer Peripheral Devices

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Unit 1: Input Devices
Content
1.0 Introduction
In the previous modules of this course, you have learned about various
hardware parts of computer systems as shown in the John Von Neumman
architecture. Peripheral devices, which involve input and output devices are significant
parts of this standard architecture. The peripheral devices are connected externally to
system unit of the computer through appropriate interface and ports.

➢ Understand the input devices and the functions in the computer system ➢ Identify
various kinds of input devices
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Description of Input Devices

Input devices are parts of the computer system that enable the users to enter data and the
required control parameters into the computer. The input data is thereafter converted and
translated into a computer-readable format for subsequent processing by the central
processing unit.
Input devices can be categorized into pointing, scanning, wireless, and cable devices.
Pointing input devices are used to move a cursor on the screen, examples of these
include the mouse, trackball, and touchpad. The category of scanning input devices are
Optical Mark Recognition (OMR), scanners, Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
devices, bar code readers among others. These pointing input devices can sense and read
characters directly on papers, and other kinds of materials. Bar code readers are often
used to scan bar code items in the supermarkets and different kinds of industrial products
in the supply chain line.
Some of the input devices include the keyboard, mouse, touchpad, webcams,
microphones, joysticks, image scanners among several others. Figure 27 shows
Computer
with Peripheral Devices.
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Figure 27 Computer with Peripheral Devices
3.2 Keyboard
The keyboard is the major and commonly used data entry device for different kinds of
computers. Like the old typewriter machines, the keyboard is used to enter data into the
computer by typing the necessary alphanumeric keys. There is a total of 104 numeric,
alphabet, and function keys. The keyboard can be connected to the system unit via cable
or wirelessly using Bluetooth.
Essentially, the keyboard typing keys include the following classes

Upper and lower case alphabet keys from A-Z and a-z respectively
Numeric keys from 0 to 9
Special 12 function keys for specific purposes
control (Ctrl) keys
cursor and screen control keys are Arrow keys, page up, page down
Alternate (Alt), Escape (Esc), Home, End, Insert, Delete
Enter, backspace, num-lock, caps lock, shift, space bar, tab, scroll lock, sleep, print
screen
Figures 28 and 30 show the illustration of computer keyboard.
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Figure 28 Description of computer keyboard
Figure 29 Computer keyboard
3.3 Mouse
A mouse is an input pointing device that is rolled over a smooth surface to control the
cursor on the computer screen through its speed controlled sensor, operational clickable
buttons on the left, middle, and right parts. The functions of the buttons can be
customized to select and, open files or objects. Figures 30 and 31 show the wired and
wireless mouse.
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Figure 30 Wireless Mouse

Figure 31 Mouse
3.4 Image scanners

The image scanner is an input device that optically scans printed materials, objects,
images, and documents and thereafter converts and store them in a digital format. The
scanned document be edited for further application. Figure 32 shows a scanner.
Figure 32 Scanner
3.5 Track Ball

A trackball is a pointing device that holds a small ball held in its sensor-based socket.
The sensor detects the rotational movement of the ball about its two axes. The device
operates exactly like an upside-down mouse but uses space to rotate its ball. As the
trackball remains stationary and the user moves the ball in various directions, it reflects
activity on the screen as shown in Figure 33.
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.
Figure 33 Track ball
3.6 Light Pen

Light pen is a light-sensitive input device that can be used to point and write or draw
directly on the visual display unit, monitor, and screen. Light pen to detect raster on the
screen as it passes on it with high precision. Light pen functions well like the
touchscreen devices as shown in figures 34 and 35.
Figure 35 Light pen Figure 34 Light pen on IPAD
3.7 Headsets and Microphone

Headsets or microphones are a kind of computer voice input devices that are able to
record sounds by transmitting and converting human speech or voice into electrical
signals. This electrical signal is processed by the computer and the word is recognized.
Application areas include in customers’ service, religious programmes and technical
support centers, where the users can communicate with clients while entering or typing
into a computer. Figure 36 shows a typical computer microphone.
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Figure 36 Computer microphone
3.8 Optical Character Reader

Optical character recognition or optical character reader (OCR) uses a low frequency
light source to detect and convert drawn images, alphanumeric characters, and printed
text into machine-encoded text, pictures or scanned documents. The OCR, which
operates like a scanner, absorbs light by the dark areas and is reflected by the light areas.
Subsequently, it reflects and receives the light by the photocells as shown in figure 37.
Figure 37 Barcode Reader
3.9 Bar Code Reader

A barcode reader is an optical scanning device which is connected to a compute to read
printed barcodes and decode the hidden data. The barcode reader which functions like a
flatbed scanner, comprises of a light source, a lens and a light sensor translating for
optical impulses into electrical signals. Most barcode readers contain decoder circuitry
that can analyze the image data in the barcode via the sensor and thereafter send the
contents of the barcode to the scanner output port.
Figure 38 and 39 show a barcode reader reading data that is coded into white and black
lines.
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Figure 38 Bar code reader
Figure 39 Bar code scanner
4.0 Conclusion
Several computer data input devices have been discussed. The input devices are part of
peripheral devices that help users to enter data into the computer system via diverse
kinds of port interfaces. Upon reception, data will be processed by the CPU for further
action. Some common input devices are keyboard, mouse, scanner, optical character
reader, barcode reader among others.
5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about some common data input devices.

What do you understand by peripheral devices?
List five types of data input devices
Discuss any 4 kinds of data input devices
Distinguish between scanner and barcode reader

"Logitech M570 Wireless Trackball Mouse Review: Unconventional
Features". Archived from the original on 2020-08-15. Retrieved on 22-012022
Alapetite, A (2010). "Dynamic 2D-barcodes for multi-device web session migration

including mobile phones". Personal and Ubiquitous Computing. 14
(1): 45–52. doi:10.1007/s00779-009-0228-5. S2CID 10202670
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Unit 2: Output Devices

Content
1.0 Introduction
You have learned about input devices in Unit 1. In this Unit 2, you will learn
more about computer peripheral devices, essentially, the output devices. These are the
devices that are used to display, in human-readable form, the output of any task carried
in the computer.

➢ Identify some output devices often used to enter data into computers ➢ Differentiate
between input and output devices
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Description of Output Devices

An output device is any peripheral hardware that is connected to a computer either wired
or wireless so as to display, project, or physically reproduce the results of data processed
by a computer. It converts electronic information into a format, which can be understood
by humans.
What differentiate an input from output device is that the input device transfers data to
the computer, whereas the output data receives data from the computer. Input devices
usage is mandatory to operate the computer, on the other hand, output devices may be
optional.
Conventionally, the output devices can be grouped into data, print, visual, and sound
hardware. Thus, various kinds of output hardware include visual display unit (monitor or
screen), printer, plotter, headphones, computer speakers, projector, GPS, sound card,
video card, braille reader, speech generating machine, among others.
3.2 Visual Display Unit

The visual display unit (VDU) popularly known as a monitor or display screen, is the
main and well-known output device that displays output contents as picture elements
(pixel) on the computer screen. These output contents include text, video, images, etc.
The VDU looks much like a TV screen and they share similar resolution parameters.
The resolution of the monitor is determined by the number of pixels. Basically, the
monitor resolution, smoothness or picture clarity, increases with more pixels. The two
types of monitor screens are cathode ray tube monitors (CRT) and flat-panel screen
monitors.
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Cathode Ray Tube monitors, which were manufactured using old CRT technology,
applied phosphorescent dots to generate pixels that form displayed images. CRT monitor
screens, which were the same as the old TV CRT technology, were usually large and
consumed more power. Figures 40 and 41 show LCD and CRT visual display units
respectively.
Figure 40 LCD visual display unit

Figure 41 CRT visual display unit
Flat Panel Screen Monitors

Flat-panel screen monitors, which implement a thin panel design instead of CRT
technology, are much lighter, thinner, and portable. They use liquid crystals or plasma
technology to generate output as light passes through liquid crystals to form the required
pixels.
The three types of Flat Panel screen monitors are Liquid Crystal Devices (LCD)
monitors or Non-emissive displays, Light Emitting Diode (LED) monitors or Emissive
displays, and Plasma monitors. Let us explain these three types of monitor screens.
Liquid Crystal Devices (LCD) monitors or Non-emissive displays
This type of flat panel display implements the light-modulating properties of liquid
crystals. This technology is also replicated in LCD televisions, aircraft cockpit displays,
ship cocktail screen, etc. An LCD monitor is more energyefficient, and users’ friendly. It
is safer to dispose than the CRT monitors.
Light Emitting Diode (LED) monitors or Emissive displays

Although the technologies of LCD and LED are similar. The LED technology of LED is
more advanced than the LCD monitor. The LED monitors are lighter, thinner, and less
expensive. These monitors are more reliable as they have a more broad dimming range
in terms of backlighting.
Plasma monitors
The picture elements in the plasma screen monitors are illuminated by a tiny bit of
charged gas or plasma which is similar to a tiny neon light. These monitors are thinner,
brighter, and better in performance than the Cathode ray tube, and liquid crystal display
monitors.
3.3 Printing Devices
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The printing devices are specialized computerized machines that can print information
permanently on materials of different forms. They are usually stand-alone systems that
can be connected to computers via cable, wirelessly, or cloud. Examples of printing
devices include printers, plotters, 3D printers among others. This section discusses on
some printing devices.
3.3.1 Printers
A printer is the most second common type of output device that permanently transfers
the processed data from the computer into a printed format and thereby produces text or
images hardcopy output on paper. Today, different kinds of printers can print texts,
photos and graphics objects in coloured, monochrome, and black and white. Printers
used in homes and offices have high dots per inch (DPI), which generates high-quality
images.
The printers are classified into Impact, and Non-Impact printers.
a) Impact printer
This is old type of printer noisily prints characters by striking on the ribbon, and thereby
imprint on the paper.
The impact printers can either be character or line printers.
Character printers
These types of printers are capable of printing text, and a single character at a time in the
average speed is up to 300 lines per minute. The different types of character printers
include chain, band, dot matrix, and daisy wheel printers. The commonly used printers
are dot matrix and daisy wheel.
Line Printers
Line printers can print and display output texts line by line. The two types of line printers
are drum printers and chain printers. Basically, the drum printer has high speed and can
print up to 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
b) Non-Impact printer
The non-impact printers can print without striking the ribbon. These include laser
printers and inkjet printers.
Laser Printers
Laser printers which use a photoelectric drum, powdered ink, and laser light to produce
dots to form the characters for printing. When a print command is given, a laser beam
draws the document on a selenium-coated drum using an electrical charge, giving a clean
copy of the image on the paper. They have fewer smearing problems than an inkjet
printer since ink is not used. A laser printer uses the same technology and procedures
like a copying machine. Figures 42 and 43 show LaserJet printers.
Inkjet Printers
This printer generates output by spraying droplets of ink onto the paper through a small
nozzle. Inkjet printers are the most widely used type of printer. There are expensive and
inexpensive models available in the market. It was the most common type of printer in
the olden days due to limited available technology. The printers are less expensive.
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Figure 42 LaserJet Printer
Figure 43 Coloured Epson Printer
3.4 Graph Plotter

A plotter output device, which is similar to a printer, but usually bigger in size, can be
used to draw large high quality, images, pictures and vector graphics.
A plotter is used to generate and draw hardcopy on papers large drawings, architectural
blueprints, engineering drawings, graphic cards, cadastral maps, satellite imageries
among others. Figure 44 shows a graph plotter.
Figure 44 Graph Plotter
3.5 Computer Speakers

Computer speakers are one of the most common output hardware used with a computer.
The speakers receive audio as input from the computer via a sound card. The internal
amplifiers of the speaker can be used to control or vary the volume or the amplitude of
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the sound. Connection of external speakers can be used to enhance the volume and other
in-built parameters of the sounds. Figure 45 shows computer speakers.
Figure 45 Computer speakers
4.0 Conclusion
Computer output hardware are quite important in showing and revealing the results of
processing by the CPU. Some common output devices are visual display units, printers
and output accessories. A printer is a peripheral output device which produces a
hardcopy of graphics or text from a computer usually on papers. While most output is
human-readable, bar code printers are an example of an expanded use for printers.
Different types of printers include 3D printers, inkjet printers, laser printers, and thermal
printers.
5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learnt about some common computer output devices. Their usage
enables the users to view and appreciate the results of processing.
Differentiate between CRT and flat panel screen monitors
Mention the three types of Flat Panel screen monitors

Morley, Deborah (April 2007). Understanding Computers: Today & Tomorrow,
Comprehensive 2007 Update Edition. Cengage Learning. p. 164. ISBN 9781305172425.
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/basics_of_computer_science/basics_of_computer_s
cience_types.htm https://www.classmate4u.com/output-devices-of-computer/
Module 4: Computer Hardware Components
Unit 1: System board - Motherboard
Content
1.0 Introduction
In this Unit, you will learn about the system motherboard. The motherboard is
the main circuit board firmly fixed inside a computer system unit to which all other
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internal electronic components and interfaces are connected via its ports. Among these
are CPU, RAM slots, controllers, system chipset, ROMs, communication cables.

Understand details about computer hardware components
Get familiar with the design of computer motherboards
Main Content
Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is a major large integrated circuit component in the system unit. It is
rectangular in shape and contains chipsets, switching devices, onboard ports, sockets,
slots, ROM chips, and interfaces for interconnecting CPU, hard drives and optical drives,
CMOS, data buses, cooling fan, power supply unit, and secondary storage devices.
Different kinds of communication and power cables are used for appropriate
connections. Expand cards and other peripheral card slots also provide connections to
video, speakers, and sound interfaces. The cooling fans and heat sink prevent excessive
heat radiation and thereby maintain the specified operating condition inside and outside
the system unit.
Some popular manufacturers of the motherboard include Intel, ASUS, AOpen, ABIT,
Biostar, Gigabyte, MSI. Figures 46 and 47 show computer motherboard.
Figure 46 Computer motherboard
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The chipset is one of the most important components in the motherboard. Older
motherboards were designed with a lot of different chips scattered all the motherboard.
There are chips for different things like chips for bus controller, memory controllers,
keyboard controllers, etc. Thus, diver chips control different functions on the
motherboard. A chipset is a smaller set of chips that has replaced a larger amount of
chips so as to control data flow between the CPU, the peripherals, bus slots, memory,
and other parts of computer.
Furthermore, the advancement in technology enable the chips manufacturers to reduce

the number of chips and rather centralizes somewhere to execute same job and localize
them to chipset. Buses connect the CPU to various internal components and to expand
cards for graphics and sound. The CMOS battery attached to the motherboard provides
the memory power backup for system clock, date, time and other system setup
parameters in the BIOS chip. The CMOS battery is mostly CR2032.
It is important that video cards, hard disks, sound cards, power supply modules, and
system unit cases are compatible and interoperable with the motherboard in order for the
entire computer system to function properly as required.
Figure 47 Motherboard components layout

The computer system clock is an electrical pulse generator that sends out a pulse of
electricity at regular intervals. The electronic components of the computer require these
electric pulses in order to execute tasks. The more pulses sent out by the system clock in
a cycle, the faster the CPU works. The first personal computers had clock speeds of 8
million pulses per second (8 MHz), but nowadays, the PCs have clock speeds greater
than 3.2 billion pulses per second (3.2 GHz).
3.2 Computer Communication Ports

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A computer port is a connecting interface point or socket between two electronic
devices. These devices can either be both computers or a peripheral device and a
computer. This connection point enables the use of various functionalities, such as the
transmission of data, power, audio, and video. Plugging a printer into your computer,
electrical charging of your phone, and storing or transferring data via a USB device are
all instances of using computer ports.
Furthermore, computer ports grant easy power connection, charging of electronic
accessories, Ethernet connections, external storage of documents or projects, projection
of audio or visual media, and cable connection to peripheral devices, such as printers or
scanners.
The use of computer ports is very essential in our homes, offices, or in the public due to
the proliferation of different kinds of computers, peripheral devices, and applications
that require the exchange of data and information. Ports and sockets are often located
outside the system unit through the motherboard or interface board for the convenience
of connecting or disconnecting communication cables.
The following figures will enable you to identify different types of computer ports so as
to make use of them appropriately. This will help to improve your performance in your
academic or career when dealing with hardware and software interfacing. Figures 48 –
51 show different kinds of computer communication ports.
Figure 48 Computer ports
Figure 49 Computer Ports on the System Unit
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Figure 50 Additional Computer ports
Figure 51 Generic Computer Ports
Although, some ports technologies are relatively old, many of such old ports are still
found on legacy computing equipment. Therefore, it is important for you to get familiar
will all form of ports and sockets so as to be able to operate many kinds of computing
hardware devices. Other ports such as Universal Serial Board (USB) on the
motherboard provide connection to monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and
network cables. The USB ports enable compatible devices to be connected in
plug-in/plug-out scheme.
Types of Computer ports

Fundamentally, hardware ports are available in different types based on the signal
transfer modes. Some common ports are:
Serial port, parallel port, PS/2 port, universal serial (USB) port, Video Graphic Adapter
(VGA) port, Modem port, game port, ethernet port, Digital Video Interface (DVI) port,
etc.
While serial ports transmit one bit of data at a time, the parallel ports transmit 8 bits of
data at a time. The technology of universal serial bus (USB) ports is newer and the port
is much faster than serial or parallel port. USB ports allow multiple devices to be
connected to the same port.
4.0 Conclusion
You have learned about some computer hardware components in this Module. These
include the system motherboard or main board, and communication ports. It is important
for you get familiar with a large array of existing communication ports, their
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functionalities, and components interconnectivities. This will really enhance your studies
and career in computing. Although, some ports are old, they still exist in some legacy
systems and customized devices, which are readily available in manufacturing, satellite,
and communication industries.
5.0 Summary
In this unit you have learned about computer communication ports. There are quite
number of them. The literature provided will enhance further study on this.

Describe the usefulness of the computer system
Explain the function of computer communication ports
List some computer ports

Jan Axelson, USB Complete: The Developer's Guide, Fifth Edition, Lakeview
Research LLC, 2015, ISBN 1931448280, pages 1-7
Hachman, Mark (2022). "The new USB4 spec promises a lot: Thunderbolt 3 support,
40Gbps bandwidth, and less confusion". PCWorld. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
Kars, Vincent (May 2011). "USB". The Well-Tempered Computer. Retrieved 7 May
2018. All operating systems (Win, OSX, and Linux) support USB Audio Class 1
natively. This means you don't need to install drivers, it is plug&play.
https://web.stanford.edu/class/cs101/hardware-1.html
Unit 2: Microchips Technology

Content
1.0 Introduction
In this Unit, you will learn about microchips and their application areas.
Microchips are the main building structures of the digital systems and embedded
computing devices. Microchips are the brain and bedrock of components miniaturization
that enabled mobile or portable devices in our world today. All these digital systems and
embedded devices are being used in most home, office and industrial devices to control
integrated systems in the oil and gas, space, manufacturing industries, just to mention a
few. These enable us to work, travel, stay fit and entertain ourselves conveniently.
Remote controlled devices in our cars, phones, driverless cars, robots, and other
automated systems are now becoming more possible.

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Understand the transistors and chips functionalities in the computer hardware
Know the relevance of transistors and chips in hardware design
Main Content
Description of Microchips
A microchip is a set of electronic circuits with millions of miniatured transistors
mounted on a small flat piece of silicon slab. Microchips which are also well known as
chips or integrated circuits (IC), function basically as switching devices that can turn
current on or off. The pattern of tiny switches is etched on the silicon wafer by adding
and removing materials to form a multilayered lattice work of interconnected shapes.
Formation of Microchips
Silicon, a semiconductor material, is an active part of the transistor is made of silicon.
Remember that a transistor being a solid state component, can change its electrical state
when pulsed, that is, in its normal state, the transistor may be conductive or non-
conductive, either impeding or allow current flow. Knowing fully that, when voltage is
applied to the gate, the transistor changes its state.
You will recall from the knowledge of chemistry, that silicon, being a semiconductor can
have its conductive properties increased by mixing it with materials like boron or
phosphorus. Thus, silicon can be used as a switching component to turn on and off
devices. This unique behaviour is preferred to metals whose main property is to conduct
electrical currents. Therefore, silicon becomes a useful and effective material in the chip
industry.
Very interestingly, silicon is made from sand, the second most abundant element next to
oxygen. Silicon wafers are produced from silica sand, which is made of silicon dioxide.
Wafers are slices of ingot, which is the melted sand which are cast into the form of a
large. Microchips, the products of these silicon wafers are therefore available
everywhere on several devices. The current advances in chips have spawned new
products and transformed industries worldwide. A chip size is usually measured in
nanometers, which is approximately one billionth of a meter, or a millionth of a
millimeter.
Types of Chips
Logic chips and Memory chips are the types of microchips available.
Logic chips are very essential in all electronic devices to process the required
information. Examples of logic chips are central processing units (CPU), graphical
processing units (GPU), and neural processing units (NPU). The CPUs which were
initially designed in the 1960s, are capable of handling all logical and mathematical
computations, the GPU was dedicated for visual display performance and the NPU was
designed for artificial intelligence works especially the deep and machine learning
applications.
Memory chips, that are designed to store information include Random Access Memory
RAM and Read-Only Memory. These types of memory storage devices have discussed
in an earlier Module of this course.
Chips Computational Power

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Constant improvements on chips technology have significant impact on advanced
memory capacity and computational power since 1960 till date. The computational
power, in terms of CPU clock speed and memory size have driven several innovative
technologies in the space, automotive, communication, and manufacturing sectors.
Space-based projects; Mars exploration, deep space exploration, satellites launched, 5G
deployment, robotics, and artificial intelligence projects have been made possible
because of the advancements in chips technologies.
Chips Manufacturers
We need to talk about some players in the chips technology industry. The Integrated
device manufacturers (IDMs) such as Intel and Samsung both design and manufacture
chips. Foundries, on the other hand, are companies that manufacture chips under contract
for other companies. Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC), Global
foundries and United Microelectronics Corporation (UMC) are examples of this type of
chipmaker. A third type of chipmaker is the ‘fabless Taiwan semiconductor company’
such as Qualcomm, Nvidia and Advanced MicroDevices (AMD), who avoid the high
costs of building and maintaining production facilities by focusing only on chip design.
These companies might farm out their production to a foundry.
Taiwan, USA and China are among the leading countries in the manufacturing of chips
globally. Most of these countries have Semiconductor Manufacturing Companies,
Silicon Valley, and chips markets.
Figure 52 shows a silicon chip enclosed in a plastic package with electrical connection
pins. The plastic package encloses a fingernail sized silicon chip with several transistors
and other components etched on its surface.
Figure 52 silicon chip in a plastic package
Modern computers use tiny electronic components which can be etched onto the surface
of a silicon chip.
3.2 Moore’s Law of Silicon Technology
In 1965, Gordon Earle Moore who was Intel co-founder, propounded a non-scientific
law or theory about the forecast rate that the number of transistors in a dense integrated
circuit would double up about every two years. Generally, the observed components in
the dense integrated circuit include transistors, resistors, diodes, or capacitors. The
implication of this law is that transistors get twice smaller about every two years.
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Conversely, the number of transistors doubles per chip due to advancement in chip
etching technology. Today, as microchips are becoming more denser, tens of billions of
transistors are available in a chip, thus making chips more computationally powerful and
versatile. This miniaturization engineering has led to manufacturing of mobile, onboard,
embedded, and smart devices. Examples of these include Internet-of-things,
computerized machines, smart watches, highperformance phones, android-based
devices, cars with onboard computer, etc.
Although, Moore’s law, which was an observation, prediction or projection of an
empirical relationship based on long-time experience of production still remain valid,
however its relevance has diminished due to the novel methods of measuring overall
processing power. The prediction has become a target for miniaturization in the
semiconductor industry and has had a widespread impact in many areas of high
technological advancement. This scaling has also significantly reduced the overall cost
of memory and logic chips with higher performance.
Future of Chips Technology

Obviously, Moore’s law validity cannot continue indefinitely. Technological and
computational innovations will not end when transistor shrinking is no longer possible.
The evolution of the new generation of chip designs now include advanced parallelism,
3D, and multi-core technologies. Some of these concepts will be discussed in the
subsequent modules of this course.
The future generation of chips design will be amazing. They will enable and orchestrate
the incredible big waves of innovations in areas of machine learning, robotics,
automated transportation, smart cities, advanced AI, and fast connectivity with
5G. Figures 53 – 55 show illustration of Moore’s law.
Figure 53 Moore's Law
Figure 54 Moore's Law Explained
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Figure 55 Moore's law on Microchips Technology
4.0 Conclusion
Microchips development has become the mainstream of technological advancement.
Microscopic transistors are etched on the silicon chips. The silicon chip is just like the
size of a fingernail of silicon. Chips, packaged in a plastic material, can contain billions
of transistors. CPU chips, memory chips, flash chips, and other memory chips for
various applications are simply some examples of chips.
The transistor, a semiconductor material, was invented in the 1950's to replace the
vacuum tubes. Transistors, the most common and basic electronic component, function
like amplifying valve for the flow of electrons. They serve as switching devices and can
be used as building blocks for constructing complex electronic components. Transistors
are solid state devices which means they do not have any moving parts. Since, its
invention, the transistor has been made smaller continuously to allow many of them to
be etched onto a silicon chip.
Gordon Moore, one of Intel’s co-founders, observed that the number of transistors on a
microchip was increasing rapidly, and thereby exponentially increasing the computing
power while also decreasing the cost of the chips. He, therefore, proposed and
formulated that the number of transistors on a silicon chip will double up nearly every
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two years. Moore’s law has mainstreamed miniaturization of chips manufacturing for
advanced technologies and innovative applications.
5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about the development of microchips technology as the
bedrock of innovations and technological advancement.

What do understand about microchips technology? What are the application areas of
microchips?
State Moore’s law. What is the impact of this law to our world today?

Bassett, Ross Knox (2002). To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and
the Rise of MOS Technology. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 53–4. ISBN 978-0-
8018-6809-2.
Saxena, Arjun N. (2009). Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts.
World Scientific. p. 140. ISBN 9789812814456.
Dummer, G.W.A.; Robertson, J. Mackenzie (16 May 2014). American Microelectronics
Data Annual 1964–65. Elsevier. pp. 392–397, 405–406. ISBN 978-1-4831-8549-1.
Brock, David C., ed. (2006). Understanding Moore's law : four decades of innovation.
Philadelphia, Pa: Chemical Heritage Press. ISBN 978-0941901413.
http://www.cs.ucr.edu/~gusta/cs8w04/hardware.htm
Module 5: Hardware Interconnectivity and Embedded Systems

Unit 1: Computer Networking
Content
1.0 Introduction
In this Unit, you will learn about computer networking. Computer networking
can be described as an interconnection of several computers and computing devices for
the purpose of sharing resources in an effective manner. It is worth noting that computer
networking is a critical part of computer hardware. Today, computer networking is the
bedrock of advanced computing technology in our modern world. Access to the internet,
intranet, social media, and the cloud is made possible by computer networking.
Therefore, it is very important for you to understand this topic so as drive academic, job,
and economic opportunities that are abound around you.
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Understand the concepts of system networking
Identify hardware devices relevant to computer networks
Main Content
Description of Computer Networking

A computer network can be described as a system in which multiple computers and other
types of computing hardware are interconnected so as to share data, information and
resources. In a network, files or documents can be created, saved and stored in a
computer such as server, and be accessed in another computer on the network
irrespective of the distance. Scanners, printers, plotters and some other peripheral
hardware can be shared over the computer network.
Computers on a network are called nodes or hosts. Multiple paths, wired or wireless,
must be carefully designed to enable sending and receiving data as required. Computer
networks include several network-enabled equipment to support communication over a
long range, some of these network devices include routers, switches, hubs, and bridges.
Figure 56 shows a typical computer networking structure.
Figure 57 Computer networking structure
3.2 Networking Devices

Routers, modems and network cards are the main networking hardware that allow
computer systems to share data and other computing resources among themselves. Let us
briefly compare the roles of modem and network card. While a modem sends
information over a communication line, a network card sends information over a
network cable. Modems are usually slow and susceptible to problems such as phone line
static. Network cards can connect computers to a local area network (LAN) or to an
Internet Service Provider (ISP) through a cable modem or DSL for the purpose of
accessing the Internet access.
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Network nodes, devices, hardware, components are computers and other computing
resources available in a network. Basically, the computer network includes the following
networking elements:
More than one computer

Network connectors
Gateway devices – routers etc
Transmission medium – wired or wireless
Protocols, group policies and operational rules
Network software
Network cables are the communication media used to connect the nodes on the network.
The most commonly used cable is ethernet cable, coaxial cable, etc. examples of ethernet
cables include category 5, CAT 6i with cable RJ-45 connectors as shown in figure 57.
Figures 58 and 59 show a router and ethernet card respectively.
Figure 58 Network cables and connectors
Figure 59 Router
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Figure 60 Internal network card
3.3 Types of computer networks

Major types of computer networks include local area network, metropolitan area
network, wide area network. Table 1 shows the details about various types of computer
networks.
Table 1 Types of Computer Networks

Type of Network Explanation and features
Personal PAN is a computer network used for data transmission

Area Network amongst devices like computers, telephones, tablets, iPAD
(PAN) and personal digital assistants via Bluetooth, WI-FI, TCP/IP
connections
Local LAN is a type of computer network that interconnects
Area Network computers within a local place or area. Such areas include
(LAN) residential buildings, school, laboratory, university campus,
offices, NOUN premises
Virtual Local This type of network involves two or more LANs that are
Area Network configured and integrated as a segment to share resources
(VLAN)
Wide WAN is a type of network that extends over a large
Area Network geographical region. WANs are often established with
(WAN) leased telecommunication circuits.
Corporate organization, business, education, government,
telecommunication firms use WAN to relay data to staff,
students, clients, buyers, and suppliers from various
locations across the globe. The Internet may be considered a
WAN.
Storage SAN is a network that provides access to a large integrated

Area Network array or block level data storage. 21st Century in Lekki,
(SAN) Lagos and other multinational firms like HP, Dell
Incorporation have SAN
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Wireless Local WLAN is a wireless distribution method for two or more
Area Network devices that use high-frequency radio waves and often
(WLAN) include an access point to the Internet. A WLAN allows
users to move around the coverage area, often a home or
small office, while maintaining a network connection
Internet The Internet is the worldwide interconnection of many types

of network that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP),
web browsers to connect computers and computing devices.
It is a network of networks that involves of both private and
public sectors as well as academia, business, and
government networks at local and international levels.
Extranet An extranet, private network organization, is a specialized

private network that allows access to specific authorized
bodies,
partners, vendors, suppliers, corporate organization. It is a
subset of the information accessible from an organization's
intranet. An extranet is a similitude to a DMZ in that it
provides access to needed services for authorized parties,
without granting access to an organization's entire network.
Virtual VPN extends a private network across a public network, and

Private Network enables users to send and receive data across shared or
(VPN) public networks as if their computing devices were directly
connected to the private network. Applications running
across the VPN may therefore benefit from the functionality,
security, and management of the private network.
Peer-to-peer (P2P) P2P network is a distributed application architecture that

partitions tasks or workloads between peers. Peers are
equally privileged, equipotent participants in the application,
thereby establishing a peer-to-peer network of nodes.
Scenario 1 Click to watch a video on further explanation about SAN

Scenario 2 Click to watch illustration about the Internet
3.4 Network topology
Network Topology is the physical arrangement and layout of the computing shared
resources over the cabled or wireless networks.
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The layout arrangement of the different devices in a network. Common examples
include: Bus, Star, Mesh, Ring, and Daisy chain. Figure 60 show different types of
computer network topology.
Figure 61 Types of Network Topology
3.5 Features of Computer Networks

The criteria or design considerations for having effective and good computer networks
include accessibility, performance, security, and reliability. Performance is a function of
the throughput, that the time elapse between request for a resource and its availability or
response. The throughput involves the transit and response times. The shorter the
throughput of a network the better the performance of such network. Basically, the
network performance depends on the number of users, type of transmission medium,
capacity of the nodes as well as the network operating system or software.
Network reliability and security are very essential too. Reliability is a function of failure
rate, ability to recover from failures, and general robustness of operations. You can
imagine when write computer-based test (CBT) may for job examination interview or so,
it may be disastrous for the network breakdown to affect your computer or node
allocated to you. For instance, the JAMB always ensures the CBT centres have reliable
computer networks. Network security is also important to ensure that the network
resources, data and hardware, are well protected from unauthorized access. Banks
always provide adequate security to protect their customers’ funds over the network
operations.
4.0 Conclusion
Computer networking involves interconnections of computer hardware and software to
share computing devices in a well-organized manner for optimizing resources, saving
cost, and attaining good quality results. Computer networking has been very beneficial to
us today. It has provided humanity with resounding socio-economic development, an
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improved education system among others. Detailed description of computer networking,
Types of computer networks, networking topologies among others were discussed.
5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about computer networking.

Explain computer networking
Discuss some advantages of computer networking
Explain computer network topology and mention some types
Discuss the impact of computer networking on our socio-political system Identify
different types of networks.

Gillies, James M.; Gillies, James; Gillies, James and Cailliau Robert; Cailliau, R. (2000).
How the
Web was Born: The Story of the World Wide Web. Oxford University Pres. ISBN 978-
0-19-2862075
Spurgeon, Charles E. (2000). Ethernet The Definitive Guide. O'Reilly & Associates.
ISBN 1-56592660-9.
Gillies, James; Cailliau, Robert (2000). How the Web was Born: The Story of the World
Wide Web. Oxford University Press. p. 25. ISBN 0192862073.
C. Hempstead; W. Worthington (2005). Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology.
Routledge. ISBN 9781135455514.
Cuenca, L. (1980). "A PUBLIC PACKET SWITCHING DATA COMMUNICATIONS
NETWORK: EIGHT YEARS OF OPERATING EXPERIENCE". Conference Record of
ICC 80. IEEE. pp. 39.3.1–
39.3.5.
Unit 2: Multi-core Technology

Content
1.0 Introduction
In the previous Module, you learned about microchips technology and its impact in the
modern technological achievement. In that Module, we also discussed Moore’s law of
rate of change on the number of transistors per silicon chip at the interval of about two
years from 1965 till date. In this Unit, you will learn about multi-core technology as an
improvement on the extent to which many more transistors can be mounted on silicon
wafer on multiple networked CPUs. Simply, multi-cores assembly is about having a
network of CPUs on one socket. A multi-core processor is an integrated circuit (IC) to
which two or more processors have been attached for enhanced performance, reduced
power consumption, and more efficient simultaneous processing of multiple tasks.
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Understand the concepts of multicore technology
Know more about parallel computing
Main Content
Description of Multicore Technology
Multi-core technology can be described as the configuration, architecture and joint

operation of two or more logical CPUs on the same processor chip. These processors are
packaged into a single integrated circuit (IC) or a die. Multi-core can also refer to
multiple dies assembled or packaged to function together. Multi-core technology which
is available in desktops, mobile PCs, servers and workstations, enables the system to
execute multiple tasks simultaneously resulting to a greater overall system performance
for the benefit of the users.
For instance, a dual-core refers to a single chip or physical CPU that contain two
separate processors or execution cores mounted on the same socket or integrated circuit
so as to enhance access speed and general high capacity. The multi-core processors also
include quad cores, dual quad cores, etc. Dual quad cores refer to two sockets having
four CPUs each making the total of eight core processors. Technically, a dual core
processor is about twice in performance than a single core processor. Multi-core systems
ultimately minimize the power and heat.
Since 2005 AMD, ARM, Broadcom, Intel, and VIA are among the chip processors
manufacturing companies that have implemented the multi-core utilization that can make
use of multithreaded applications. Technically, it is obvious that the number of cores to
be integrated in one chip would increase over time as their physical size and energy
consumption drops. This, however, renders Moore’s law ineffective with the growing
number of transistors. Multi-core technology is, therefore, an increasing advancement as
single core processors rapidly reached the physical limit speed and miniaturization.
This technology is most commonly used in multicore processors, where two or more
processor chips or cores run concurrently as a single system. Multicore-based processors
are used in mobile devices, desktops, workstations and servers. Today, multi-core
processors, where two or more processor chips or cores run concurrently as a single
system, are commonly used across several fields and disciplines, such as health
informatics, diseases simulation, general-purpose, embedded, robotics, network, digital
signal processing, machine learning, and digital image processing. Multicore-based
processors are used in mobile devices, desktops, workstations and servers.
Figure 61 shows a quad core processor, with four processors on a single integrated
circuit.
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Figure 62 Multi-core processor - Quad core
Multi-threaded Software
Till date, most software and program codes are developed to function serially on one
CPU at a time. It is somehow complex to split or parallelize a program into smaller
modules for separate CPUs to execute different individual part without interfering with
each other. However, multi-core technology has provided more than one processor for
executing problems in parallel. Multithreaded software is a software capable of splitting
large or complex tasks or computational jobs into a set of separate workloads or subtasks
that could be processed and executed concurrently on each of the cores present. Many
software operating system and applications development are now becoming
multithreaded. Thus, multi-core processors work at their full potential can be used for
such multi-threaded programs or software, thereby reducing execution time. Data-
intensive or computational-intensive jobs are common in science and engineering fields,
examples include human genome or DNA sequencing, advanced virtual manufacturing,
video editing, encoding, 3D gaming, space exploration simulation and other types of
grand challenge problems.
The parallelization of software programming to take advantage of multi-core hardware is
a significant innovation. It is a fact that advancement in hardware is much ahead of
software advancement.
3.2 Parallel Computing

The multi-core processor technology serves as the basis for parallel computing in terms
of hardware and software deployment. Parallel computing cluster servers and parallel
algorithms have capability to take advantage of multiple processors thereby increasing
the speed, efficiency and the general performance of computers. While serial computing
allows each process to run sequentially, the parallel computing technique allows multiple
processes to be executed at the same time.
Parallel computing enables computers to solve extremely large and complex problems
that would otherwise be impossible to process within a reasonable time frame. Such a
problem must have divisible parts or modules that can run concurrently. Parallel
computing enables all computer processes to run more efficiently, thereby saving time
and money. While large problems are data-intensive, complex problems are more
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computationally-intensive. These kinds of problems are common in science and
engineering fields.
Performance evaluation of a multi-core processor is a function of the software
algorithms used and their implementation. In actual sense, the speedup is limited by the
fraction of the software that can run in parallel on the available multiple cores.
Category of Parallel Computing Architecture

The four categories of parallel computers are:
Bit-level parallelism,
Instruction-level parallelism, ✓ Data parallelism,
Task parallelism.
Many computers possess only one CPU, but some computer have many CPUs.
Meanwhile, the single-CPU computers perform parallel processing a networking
environment with the aid of distributed processing software. Parallel computing is the
mainstream of high-performance computing.
Parallel software are more complex to program than sequential software, because
concurrency introduces coding errors and bugs due to attendant race conditions and dead
locks. These potential coding bugs do pose challenges on getting the required
performance due to communication, intermittent results collation, and synchronization
demands. Interestingly enough, many parallel programming languages have been
developed to address these challenges.
4.0 Conclusion
Multicore architecture assembles multiple processor cores into a single physical
processor chip or integrated circuit die so as to implement multiprocessing capability for
high-performance computations. Parallel computing with multi-threaded software to
solve complex and/or large problems in business, science and engineering will achieve
high-performance computing that often showcases in cost effectiveness, reduction of
execution time and high quality results.
5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about multicore technology and its relevance to
technological achievement.
Define multicore technology

Distinguish between cores and CPUs
Compare advancement between software and hardware technologies with respect of
parallel processing
Explain the relationship between Moore’s law and multicore technology
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Rouse, Margaret (2007). "Definition: multi-core processor". TechTarget. Archived from
the original on August 5, 2010. Retrieved 29 January, 2022
https://www.computerscience.gcse.guru/theory/von-neumann-architecture
Duran, A (2011). "Ompss: a proposal for programming heterogeneous multi-core
architectures". Parallel Processing Letters. 21 (2): 173–193.
doi:10.1142/S0129626411000151.
Unit 3: Introduction to Embedded Systems
Content
1.0 Introduction
In Unit 2, you learned about the multi-core technology, parallel computing and multi-
threaded software attributes. All of these have direct applications in embedded systems
design. In this study, you will learn about embedded computing systems and their
applications in our modern world. Precisely, cameras, phones, thermostats, pilot cockpit,
etc are few examples of embedded computers comprising hardware and software.

Understand the concepts of embedded systems
Know more about micro-controller-based systems
Main Content
Introduction to Embedded systems

An embedded hardware device is a specialized computer system that exists as an inbuilt
or integral part of a bigger equipment, machine or system, which can function with less
human interaction. Usually, an embedded system has a processor, software, interface,
input and output integrated components. The components are closely assembled together
to provide various functionalities to the user. Technically, an embedded system is
designed and implemented on a single microprocessor board with the programs stored in
ROM.
Today, almost all electrical/electronic appliances have embedded devices with
specialized digital interface. Examples of systems that use embedded computers are
watches, microwaves, ATM machines, smart classroom boards, VCRs, cars, biomedical
devices, satellites, pilot cockpits, televisions, and industrial robots. More specifically, the
controller embedded in an elevator controls the motor to move the elevator to different
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floors, based on buttons that are pressed by the user. A decoder is embedded in a satellite
television set-top box to read a signal from the dish and send input to the operate the TV.
Usually, the embedded systems often operate within the pre-defined time, also known as
real-time computing. Figure 62 shows some examples of embedded devices.
Figure 63 Examples of embedded systems
Embedded Software
Embedded software is a specialized kind of portable software that is used to operate in-
built computers. Embedded software is a real-time software developed specifically to
control the designed functions of the in-built devices. The components are usually
limited in capacity. Some embedded systems include an application software, operating
system, but many are so customized in such a way that all the entire logics are
implemented as a single program.
There significant differences among embedded software, operating system, and
firmware. The embedded software is a set of dedicated codes to control the functions a
device. Firmware functions to complement the operations of the computer systems and
applications. The normal computer operating system is a full-fledged software that
control other resources in a computer.
Practically, device manufacturers design embedded software to execute the specific and
exact purpose of the instructions. On the other hand, the normal operating systems can
execute a wide range of optional instruction codes with much degree of flexibility with
respect to the users’ preferences.
On-board Computers
An on-board computer can be described as a computer or hybrid computing system that
is specifically configured and installed in mobile objects or vehicles such as submarines,
ships, aircraft, and spacecraft. The on-board computers are used to process information
that is transmitted to, or received from mobile or remote objects through microwaves,
radar, optical, and other types of radio-engineering so as to monitor the functions, health
status, data handling, communications, navigation guidance, and other activities of the
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objects. On-board computers are manufactured and developed from miniaturized
integrated circuits and other high-performance embedded electronic computing devices
Application areas include satellite autonomous on-board computers (OBC), remote
terminal units, central terminal units (CTU), encryptors and decryptors. Most of these
on-board computing devices, which provide processing functionality, are installed and in
the avionics and on-board data handling subsystems of in-orbit spacecraft. The on-board
software, including the operating system and applications run in the OBC under the
control of the on-board processor, known as the CTU.
Obviously, you are familiar with the cars on-board computers. The on-board computer
continuously and autonomously informs drivers about the functions and conditions of
the car through voice, sound and display. Can you identify some of these information
and feedbacks as shown in Figure 63? Figure 64 shows the cockpit on-board computer
supporting the pilot to navigate and control the aircraft.
Figure 64 Car On-board Computers
Figure 65 Plane On-board Computer - Cockpit
4.0 Conclusion
Embedded systems are specialized integrated in-built computers. Embedded systems
control many of the common devices in our homes, offices, institutions, companies, and
communities, such as card readers in hotel door locks or several things in a car. They can
control small things like an MP3 player or a digital camera, and large systems like ships,
traffic light systems, airplanes, satellites, or assembly lines in a factory. On-board
computers are usually installed on mobile and remote objects to control and monitor
their behaviours and functionalities.
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5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about embedded system description, application and
examples.

Define the characteristics of embedded systems
How useful are embedded systems in our modern world today?
Mention some appliances or equipment with embedded system devices.

Michael Barr. "Embedded Systems Glossary". Neutrino Technical Library. Retrieved
2007-04-21.
Michael Barr; Anthony J. Massa (2006). "Introduction". Programming embedded
systems: with C and GNU development tools. O'Reilly. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-59600983-
0.
Module 6: Digital Systems

Unit 1: Introduction to Digital Systems
Content
1.0 Introduction
In this Unit, you will learn about digital systems. A system could be described
as a set of related components that function as a whole to achieve a definite goal
comprising inputs, processors, and outputs in digital form.
They are found in a wide range of applications, including process control,
communication systems, digital instruments, and consumer products.
A computer manipulates information in digital, or more precisely, binary form. A binary
number has only two discrete values — zero or one. Each of these discrete values is
represented by the OFF and ON status of an electronic switch called a transistor. All
computers, therefore, only understand binary numbers. Any decimal number (base 10,
with ten digits from 0 to 9) can be represented by a binary number (base 2, with digits 0
and 1).
The basic blocks of a computer are the central processing unit (CPU), the memory, and
the input/output (I/O). The CPU of the computer is basically the same as the brain of a
human. Computer memory is conceptually similar to human memory. A question asked
to a human is analogous to entering a program into the computer using an input device
such as the keyboard, and answering the question by the human is similar in concept to
outputting the result required by the program to a computer output device such as the
printer. The main difference is that human beings can think independently, whereas
computers can only answer questions that they are programmed for.

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Understand the concepts of digital systems
Make use of different digital system
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Digital Systems

A digital system represents information by using digits with optional entries such as in
decimal (0 through 9), or binary (either 0 or 1). A digital clock display is in decimal
format. A binary digit also known as a bit, is used in computers, digital communication
such as the Internet. For example, a bit can represent 'Yes' or 'No';
'True' or 'False'; or ‘On’ or ‘Off’. For instance, a string of bits of ‘0’ and ‘1’ can be used
to represent data or information, such as image. This is useful in transmitting satellite
image from an observation satellite from orbit to the ground station using affordable data
rate within the limited visible time. Binary digit (Bit) has a value of either 0 or 1, and 1
byte (a Character) comprises of 8 bits.
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is one of the most
common character encoding formats for text data in computers and on the internet. In
standard ASCII-encoded data, there are unique values for 128 alphabetic, numeric or
special additional characters and control codes. It is a code that assigns characters, such
as 'a', 'b', etc. unique 8-bit values. This enables data generated on one computer to be
understood by other computers.
Kilobyte: 1024 bytes (or 2^10 bytes).
Megabyte: 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^20 bytes), this is about one million bytes.
Gigabyte: 1024 * 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^30 bytes), this is about one billion bytes.
Terabyte: 1024 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^40 bytes), this is about one trillion
bytes.
3.2 Analog-to-Digital Converter

An Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) is an electronic device that converts an input
analog voltage or current to a discrete digital number, that is, from analog signals into
digital signals. The size of the number grows with increasing input voltage or current.
Some non-electronic or partly electronic devices, such as rotary encoders, can also be
identified as ADCs. A digital system is different than an analogue system, which
represents information in a continuous way.
Analog information is transmitted by modulating a continuous transmission signal by
amplifying a signal strength or varying its frequency to add or take away data. Digital
information describes any system based on discontinuous data or events. Computers,
which handle data in digital form, require analog-to-digital converters to turn signals
from analog to digital before it can be read. One example is a modem which converts
signals from digital to analog before transmitting those signals over communication lines
such as telephone lines that transmit only analog signals. The signals are turned back
into digital form or demodulated at the receiving end so that the computer can process
the data in its pre-designed digital format. Figure 65 shows Analog-to-Digital
Converter.
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Figure 66 Analog-to-Digital Converter
Figure 66 shows computer system connection to MODEM.
Figure 67 Computer system connection to MODEM
3.3 Digital-to-Analog Converter

The reverse operation of ADC is performed by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
Digital-to-analog converter is a device on a single chip for converting binary digital code
or data to analog signals such as current, voltage or electric charge.
Modems require a DAC to convert data to analog signals that can be carried by
communication cables. For instance, video adapters also require DACs, commonly
known as Random Access Memory DAC (RAMDAC), to convert digital data to analog
signals suitable for Visual Display Units processing. RAMDAC combines DACs with
small static random access memory useful for graphic controllers to generate voltage
amplitude, analog signal for colour display. Figure 67 shows Digital-to-Analog
Converter.
Figure 68 Digital-to-Analog Converter
4.0 Conclusion
Digital system is a field relevant to provide background understanding about the number
formats used by the computing systems and computation parameters. Data values are
usually converted into bit strings for easy computation. The analog-todigital and digital-
to-analog converters enable necessary values conversion for easy interoperability among
diverse computing devices.
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5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters.
These hardware devices are useful for converting one signal to the other for the purpose
of compatibility in data processing.

Define the functions of an analog-to-digital converter
Distinguish between DAC and ADC hardware devices

Schmidt, Christian (2020), Interleaving Concepts for Digital-to-Analog Converters:
Algorithms, Models, Simulations and Experiments. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien
Wiesbaden
Kester, Walt (2005), The Data Conversion Handbook, ISBN 0-7506-7841-0
Phillip E. Allen, Douglas R. Holberg, CMOS Analog Circuit Design. ISBN 0-19511644-
5.
A Anand Kumar, Fundamentals of Digital Circuits. ISBN 81-203-1745-9, ISBN 978-81-
203-1745-1.
Allen, Phillip E.; Holberg, Douglas R., CMOS Analog Circuit Design, ISBN 0-
19511644-5
Kester, Walt, ed. (2005), The Data Conversion Handbook, Elsevier: Newnes, ISBN 0-
7506-7841-0
Johns, David; Martin, Ken, Analog Integrated Circuit Design, ISBN 0-471-14448-7
Norsworthy, Steven R.; Schreier, Richard; Temes, Gabor C. (1997), Delta-Sigma Data
Converters, IEEE Press, ISBN 0-7803-1045-4
Unit 2: Cloud Computing

Content
1.0 Introduction
In earlier parts of this course, you have learned about computing hardware in several
concepts. In this Unit, you will learn about the cloud of computing resources and its
hardware devices. Cloud computing is a means of accessing, processing and saving
computing hardware, software (data or programs) through the Internet. Application of
cloud computing gives the flexibility of working anywhere where you can get an online
connection. This is in contrast to how data and programs are normally accessed, which is
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locally through your computer’s hard drive (or network). This means being committed to
the physical device or network where your work and programs are saved. Similar to how
the cloud hide the sky in the real world, the cloud in computing hides the computing
infrastructure but are made available to the users via the Internet.

Understand the concepts of cloud computing
Identify hardware resources available in the cloud
How to make use of the cloud computing
Main Content
Description of Computing
Cloud computing can be described as a collection computing resources, basically
software and hardware infrastructures as well as services independently configured and
deployed by an organization for use by a large array of clients, mostly for commercial
purpose. Cloud computing is a similitude to provision of electricity by PHCN for
consumers who pay for the service accordingly. Normally, the consumers do not bother
about how the electricity is generated, transmitted or distributed. Thus, cloud computing
involves information technology-based activities that are provided “as a service” which
allow users to access the available services and resources through the Internet.
In fact, the IEEE explained cloud computing as a concept where information is hosted on
computer servers accessible via the Internet to other devices, such as computers, laptops,
handhelds, and sensors. It includes hardware as a platform, software as a service (SaaS),
such as Web 2.0, that depend on the Internet to meet the computational needs of the
users. It requires a well-configured high capacity infrastructure that can handle large and
complex data processing. The user can simply use storage, computing power, or
development environments, without having to worry how they work behind the scenes.
Examples of the cloud computing providers are Windows Azure, Google App Engine.
For instance, Google has made several office suite apps which are accessed from a web
browser. Unlike other software that does the same tasks, including Microsoft Office, the
software and data are stored on Google's servers, not on the machine in which they are
used. Figure 68 shows a typical cloud computing platform.
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Figure 69 Cloud computing platform
Cloud computing is an on-demand service that has gained much support and interest
from corporate online datacenters and professionals respectively. The cloud enables the
datacenter to host online computing resources for the use remote clients. Such users can
pay and access software applications and services via the Internet instead of using their
hard drive and other local computing resources as desired. The cloud infrastructure
providers are responsible to maintain their cloud computing platforms.
Cloud computing networks involve large groups of high-performance computing servers,
WAN/LAN networks of systems, large bandwidth, faster Internet access, and cloud
service providers that usually take advantage of low-cost computing technology, with
specialized connections to deploy data-processing facilities. Virtualization and
hyperthreading technologies are often deployed to maximize online processing power.
Cloud computing is much profitable and beneficial to small and medium enterprises
(SME) who cannot afford all their required resources. In the SME sector there is often a
limited number of resources in terms of time and financial resources to acquire, deploy
and maintain the software, server and storage infrastructure. Thus, pay-as-you-browse
subscription business method is designed to let SMEs easily add or remove services and
resources as required.
3.2 Cloud Computing Infrastructure
Basically, the cloud computing platforms comprise of Software-as-a-Service (SaaS),
Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS), and Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS).
a) Software-as-a-Service
Software-as-a-Service (IaaS)refers to software that is available in the Cloud which the
users can access based on subscription through the Internet and web browsers. The cloud
computing provider manages the software update, licenses renewal, availability, and
security. The remote users do not bother about all these, thus making the entire
subscription cost more affordable than the cost of installing all the required software in a
local hard drive.
Examples of SaaS include Google Apps, MailChimp, Office Online, Dropbox, among
others.
Merits of SaaS include the following:
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Reduction in funds, time and stress expended in maintaining locally installed software
Readily available on any device provided Internet connection exists ✓ Access to any
desired software
Drawbacks and challenges of SaaS include the following:

Downtime due to planned maintenance schedules
Cybersecurity threats – compromise of sensitive data over the Internet
Bandwidth overhead, constraints about Internet accessibility especially in the developing
nations
Inability to control the software, e.g. appearance, scheduled updates etc
There Vendor Lock-In, this means users are tied to their vendors and to swap vendors is
usually difficult sometimes. Transfer of data may be complex.
Infrastructure-as-a-Service
Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS) are the resources made available as a cloud-based
service, these include storage, networking, processing and virtualization. Thus,
businesses can purchase resources on-demand. This is much preferred to buying and
owing several hardware resources. This provides a highly flexible and scalable solution
whereby specific hardware can be paid for based on the current needs of the business or
project. Examples of IaaS include Rackspace, Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft
Azure, Cisco Metapod
Platform-as-a-Service
Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS) are hardware and software tools available over the
Internet. PaaS is used to provide a platform for software creation. Using PaaS allows
developers to focus on coding their applications and not worry about the OS, storage or
hardware. It also allows many users to work on the same project together, and provide
tools to help test and deploy applications.
PaaS (Platform as a Service) is a model that provides, among other things, the operating
system, programming language execution environment, database, and web server as
computing platforms. Examples of PaaS include Apache Stratos, AWS Elastic
Beanstalk, Windows Azure, Heroku, Force.com, Google App Engine, etc.
4.0 Conclusion
Cloud computing refers to an Internet-based cloud of computational software,
infrastructure, platform, and services that is remotely located away from the users. The
cloud computing providers maintain and secure the resources while the users subscribe
on-demand. This system is more affordable for the users, since they do not have to
bother about the systems update, regular license subscription, ethical challenges, legal
issues, and cost acquiring virtually all the resources. However, the vendors must
conform with best practices, cybersecurity, regulatory, and standard frameworks.
5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about cloud computing, its designs, configurations,
opportunities, and challenges.
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Define cloud computing
List some cloud computing hardware
Identify some cloud computing platforms
Ray, Partha Pratim (2018). "An Introduction to Dew Computing: Definition, Concept
and Implications - IEEE Journals & Magazine". IEEE Access. 6: 723– 737.
doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2775042. S2CID 3324933.
Amjad Ali, Khalid Saifullah Syed, in Advances in Computers, 2013

https://www.computerscience.gcse.guru/theory/cloud-computing Ted Simpson, Jason
Novak, Hands on Virtual Computing, 2017, ISBN 1337515744, p. 451
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CSC215

DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY ABRAKA, NIGERIA

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

DR. GRACIOUS C. OMEDE

Understand, use, and work with computer hardware devices

Working through this Course

Module 1: Introduction to Computer Systems

COURSE CODE CSC215

COURSE TITLE COMPUTER HARDWARE

COURSE DURATION 13 WEEKS

REQUIRED HOURS FOR STUDY 65

COURSE LECTURER ENGR. DR. GRACIOUS C. OMEDE

COMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT,

DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY ABRAKA.

Module 1: Introduction to Computer Systems

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

Figure 1 Computer Device Data Flow Process

Figure 2 Architecture of a Computer System

Figure 3 IBM System z9

Figure 4 Computer system

3.4 Historical Generations Advancements of Computers

First Generation: 1940-1956

Figure 5 First Generation Computers

Second Generation: 1957-1963

Figure 6 Second Generation Computer

Third Generation 1964-1971

Figure 7 Third Generation computer

Fourth Generation Computers 1972-1990

Figure 8 Fourth Generation Computers

Fifth Generation Computers 1990 to date

The computers of this generation are designed based on superconductors, VLSI,

Figure 9 Fifth generation computer - Laptop

Figure 10 Fifth generation computer - Robot

3.5 Comparison between Hardware and Software

Table 1 The comparison of hardware to software

Hardware is a tangible physical Software is a set of instruction or codes that

Hardware devices are

Hardware cannot function without

Von Neumman architecture for

computer viruses do not affect

If hardware is damaged, it can be When software is damaged, corrupt it can

Examples include Keyboard,

6.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

7.0 References / Literature

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

Descriptions of Computer Software

Types of Computer Software

Application Utility software Firm ware

Systems software Operating system

Figure 11 Classifications of Computer Software

6.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

7.0 References and Further Reading

Module 2: Computer Hardware Architecture

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

Von Neumann Computer Architecture