MANARAT INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

Center FOR General Education

CGED Class Schedule-Summer (Trimester) /Fall (Semester) 2024

Lecture-3
Course Teacher
Md. Saifur Rahman Babu
Adjunct Faculty
Email: [email protected]
Major Study Area of this Class:
 Ecology & Ecosystem
- Definition, meaning and concept of Ecology
- Definition of ecosystem
- Components of ecosystem; Biotic & Abiotic
- Functions of ecosystems,
- Ecosystem resilience
- Ecosystem diversity & conservation
 Definition, meaning and concept of Ecology
What is Ecology?
Ecology is a branch of biology that studies the interactions among organisms
and their environment. It encompasses various levels of biological
organization, from individuals and populations to communities,
ecosystems, and the biosphere.

Meaning
 The meaning of ecology extends beyond mere observation of nature; it
involves understanding the complex interactions that occur within
ecosystems, including:
1. Interactions Among Organisms: This includes predation, competition,
symbiosis (mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism), and disease.
2. Interactions with the Environment: This encompasses how organisms
adapt to their surroundings, utilize resources, and influence the physical
environment (e.g., soil formation, nutrient cycling).
3. Human Impact: Ecology also examines the influence of human activities
on natural ecosystems, such as habitat destruction, pollution, climate
change, and biodiversity loss.
Definition of Ecology
 Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between
organisms and their environment, encompassing both biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living) components.
 It examines how species interact with each other and their
surroundings, and how these interactions influence the
distribution, abundance, and dynamics of organisms.
 It also seeks to understand natural processes and the
organization of life on Earth.
 Scholars' Definitions of Ecology
According to German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1866),
The term was coined by the Ernst Haeckel in 1866, deriving from the Greek words "oikos" (house or
environment) and "logos" (study of).
 "Ecology is the science of the relationships between organisms and their environment.“ He coined the
term "ecology" and emphasized the connection between living beings and their surroundings.
According to Modern Pioneers of ecology Eugene P. Odum (1971),
 “Ecology is the study of the structure and function of nature.”He stressed that ecology is not just
about the relationships among organisms but also about the flow of energy and matter through
ecosystems.
According to Arthur Tansley (1935),
 "Ecology is the study of ecosystems. “He introduced the concept of ecosystems and highlighted that ecology
should focus on the interactions within ecosystems, including both living and non-living components.
According to Savindra Singh,
 It may be summarized that:‘ecology is- science that studies interrelationships between biotic and
abiotic components of a natural ecosystem on one hand and among organisms on the other hand’.
Development Phases of Ecology
 Four Phases of Ecological Development 2. Phase Two of Ecology (between two world Wars
Historically, the development of ecology in terms of the scope of Period)
the subject, major interest, aims and objectives and approaches  Shift from Classification to Habitat Analysis
to the study of various aspects of ecology, may be divided into
four phases as follows . Focus moved from mapping and classifying vegetation to
examining how vegetation characteristics interact with
1. Phase One of Ecology (Up to First World War) physical habitat conditions.
 Focus on Defining Ecology
 Advancements in Scientific Methodologies
Early ecology sought to define its scope by focusing on reciprocal
relationships between organisms and their environments. introduction of laboratory analysis, pollen analysis, and
statistical techniques strengthened the scientific basis of
 Fundamental Units of Vegetation ecological studies.
Efforts concentrated on identifying basic units of vegetation and  Diversification of Ecology
understanding the organization of plant communities.
 Vegetation Classification Ecology expanded beyond terrestrial plants to include:
 Freshwater and marine plant communities
Early ecologists worked to develop classification systems for
vegetation types, aiming for a structured approach to categorizing  Animal communities
plant communities.
 Exploration of Ecological Stability
 Habitat Relationships
Ecologists began studying ecological stability, delving into
This phase explored the relationships between plants and how ecosystems maintain balance and the factors
animals and how they adapt to different habitats, a key aspect of
early ecological research.
influencing these interactions.
3. Phase Three of Ecology (Post- 4. Phase Four of Ecology (Modern
World War II to 1960) Phase, Since 1960)
 Introduction of System Analysis  Diversification and Specialization
It was applied to ecological studies, allowing a This phase saw expanded themes and
structured approach to understanding specialized areas within ecology, providing to
ecosystems. various environmental and societal needs.
 Focus on Ecosystem Studies  Environmental Planning and Management
Researchers aimed to understand complex Ecology principles were applied in social
relationships between organisms and their planning programs, promoting environmental
physical environment using ecosystem-based sustainability and addressing ecological impacts.
studies.
 Key Concepts in Modern Ecology
 Major Ecological Processes as Central
Concepts such as niche theory, ecosystem
Theme
energy flow, material recycling, tolerance
Key ecological processes, such as energy flow
limits, and successional change were integrated
and nutrient cycling, became the core focus of
into diverse planning and management contexts.
ecological research.
 Sub-division of Ecology
The concept of ecology now has been extended from single phenomenon (plant
ecology, animal ecology) to set of phenomena occupying a definite space in the
biosphere at a definite time interval. So, the main sub-fields of ecology are
outlined in here:
1. Taxonomic Affinities:
Taxonomy is the branch of biology that studies the naming, arranging,
classifying, and describing organisms into groups and levels.
Initial Focus in Ecology
 Biological Sciences Foundation: Ecology initially linked exclusively with
botany (plants) and zoology (animals).
 Primary Divisions:
1. Plant Ecology: Specialized studies on plant types,
e.g., oak ecology, pine ecology.
2. Animal Ecology: Specialized studies on animal types,
e.g., insect ecology, fish ecology.
3. Specialized Areas: Studies focused on individual plant and animal types,
leading to specific ecological fields (e.g., bacterial ecology).
2. Habitat-Based Subdivisions:
 Ecology is also studied based on habitat  Sub-Divisions of Habitat Ecology
differences, such as forest ecology, grassland
 Forest Ecology: Examines forest ecosystems,
ecology, marine ecology, and freshwater
including species interactions and environmental
ecology.
influences.
 It examines how the physical characteristics of
 Grassland Ecology: Focuses on grassland habitats,
different environments influence organisms.
their flora and fauna, and ecological processes.
 Core Principle of Habitat-Based
 Freshwater Ecology: Studies ecosystems in lakes,
Ecology rivers, and streams, with a focus on aquatic species.
Habitat Variations: Ecology is subdivided based  Marine Ecology: Deals with oceanic habitats and
on different physical characteristics of habitats, species, including coral reefs.
such as:
 Estuarine Ecology: Explores ecosystems where
Topography: Landscape features (e.g., mountains, freshwater meets saltwater, supporting diverse
valleys). organisms.
Soils: Nutrient content, moisture, and soil type.
Climate: Insolation, temperature, weather patterns,
and water availability.
3. Levels of Organization
Ecological studies can focus on either: 2. Synecology (Community Ecology)
 Autecology: The study of individual species' Examines the interactions within a biological community,
relationships with their environment. encompassing multiple species.
 Synecology: The study of the relationships between  Fundamental Unit: Biological community rather than
species within a community individual species.
1. Autecology (Individual Species Ecology)  Aspects of Synecology
 It Focus on studies of the relationship of a single Population Ecology: Interactions within a population of a
species with its environment. single species.
 Unit of Study: Individual species as a fundamental Community Ecology: Relationships and dependencies
unit. among different species within a habitat.
 Aspects of Species Biome Ecology: Studies the interactions of multiple
Geographical Distribution: Where the species is communities within similar climatic zones.
located. Ecosystem Ecology: Focuses on the interaction of all
Life Cycle and Development: Growth stages affected organisms with each other and their environment.
by environmental factors.
Species-Specific Factors: Morphology, taxonomy, and
succession
Ecological Concepts and Principles
 Core Ecological Concepts and Principles 2. Energy Flow in Ecosystems:
1. Ecosystem as a Functional Unit:  Energy enters ecosystems primarily through sunlight,
captured by producers (plants) and transferred
 Ecosystems consist of biotic and abiotic components through food chains.
interacting to form a stable unit.
 The unidirectional flow of energy follows the laws of
 Each ecosystem has energy flow, nutrient cycling, and thermodynamics, with energy decreasing as it moves
specific species interactions that maintain equilibrium. up trophic levels.
3. Nutrient Cycling (Biogeochemical Cycles): 4. Ecological Succession and Evolution:
 Essential nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus  Ecosystems undergo succession, a gradual process of
are cycled within ecosystems. change and development.
 These cycles help sustain life by recycling nutrients  It includes primary and secondary succession,
through soil, water, air, and living organisms. leading to a climax community that represents a
5. Interdependence and Symbiosis: stable endpoint.
 Species depend on each other and their physical 6. Biodiversity and Stability:
environment, engaging in mutualism, commensalism,  Greater biodiversity often leads to more stable
and parasitism. ecosystems, as diverse species can fulfill various
 These relationships enhance biodiversity and ecosystem ecological roles.
complexity.  High biodiversity enhances ecosystem resilience
against environmental changes.
 Definition of Ecosystem
In general, Ecosystem refers to a system of interconnected living .
organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms) and their physical
environment (soil, water, air). Scholars Perspectives on Ecosystem:
Key Functions:  Tansley (1935) emphasized that ecosystems are maintained by
interactions between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) elements,
1. Energy and Nutrient Exchange: Ecosystems maintain balance achieving balance through these interactions.
through energy flow, food chains, and nutrient cycles.
2. Diverse Scales: Ecosystems vary in size, from a small pond to
the entire biosphere.  F.R. Fosberg (1963) defined ecosystems as functioning, interacting
systems of living organisms and their environments.
3. Stability and Biodiversity: Interactions between organisms and
their environment support ecological stability and diversity.
The term ecosystem was first introduced by ecologist A.G. Tansley  R.L. Lindeman (1942) highlighted ecosystems as physical-chemical-
in 1935. He defined it as “a physical system comprising organisms biological systems operating over space and time.
and inorganic components in stable equilibrium, open and varying
in size and type.”
 E.P. Odum (1971) described ecosystems as units where organisms
Key Components: interact with the physical environment, creating energy flow, structured
Tansley described the ecosystem as having two primary parts: trophic levels, diversity, and material cycles.
Biome: All living organisms within a particular area (plants and
animals)
Habitat: The physical, non-living environment in which these
organisms exist.
The ecosystems are characterized by the following basic properties :
1. Comprehensive Composition 5. Open System Dynamics
Ecosystems encompass all living organisms and their Ecosystems are open systems with a continuous flow of
physical environments in a given space and time, forming a matter and energy, relying mainly on solar energy but
dynamic system with both biotic (living) and abiotic (non- accommodating other energy sources.
living) components.
6. Functional Cycles
2. Fundamental Components Biotic and abiotic components interact through large-scale
Composed of three core elements: energy, biotic cycles such as energy flow, water, and nutrient cycles,
(organisms), and abiotic (habitat) components, each which maintain ecological balance.
contributing to ecosystem function. 7. Productivity
3. Spatial and Temporal Dimensions Productivity represents the ecosystem’s capacity to
Each ecosystem occupies a specific area on Earth (spatial produce organic matter based on available energy,
dimension) and exists over a defined period (temporal reflecting growth rates within specific areas over time.
dimension), making it adaptable and measurable. 8. Natural Resource Systems
4. Complex Interactions Ecosystems function as renewable resource systems,
Biotic and abiotic components, including energy, interact supporting human needs and ecological functions.
intricately, creating interdependencies between organisms 9. Structured Organization
and their environments.
Ecosystems are well-structured, organized systems that
can be studied as models, focusing on input and output
variables for specific analytical purposes.
Components of Ecosystem
Ecosystems consist of three main components:  Air: Supplies oxygen and carbon dioxide, critical for
respiration and photosynthesis.
1. Energy Component Example: In a rainforest, high levels of humidity and CO₂
 Solar Energy: The primary energy source for ecosystems, driving contribute to dense vegetation growth.
photosynthesis in plants and sustaining the entire ecosystem's energy  Sunlight: Drives photosynthesis, enabling energy
flow. transfer from the sun to living organisms
Example: In a forest ecosystem, solar energy is absorbed by tree leaves,
allowing them to produce food and provide energy for herbivores like deer,
insects, and rodents. Organic Substances:
 Energy Flow: Energy enters ecosystems through sunlight and flows Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats, and Lipids which is required
unidirectionally through various trophic levels, from producers to for energy storage, growth, and metabolic functions.
consumers and decomposers.
 Biogenic Elements:
2. Abiotic (Physical) Component Macronutrients: Elements like carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen,
Environmental Factors: phosphorus, calcium, and potassium, necessary in large
amounts for life processes.
 Land and Soil: Provide essential minerals and nutrients for plant
growth and habitat for organisms. Micronutrients: Iron, zinc, cobalt, and others are needed in
smaller amounts but are crucial for specialized cellular
Example: In a grassland ecosystem, fertile soil supports grasses that serve functions.
as food for grazers like bison and antelope.
Example: In an agricultural ecosystem, nitrogen from
 Water: Vital for all forms of life, water supports biochemical reactions fertilizers promotes crop growth, and micronutrients support
and is involved in nutrient cycling. soil health.
Example: In a pond ecosystem, water provides a habitat for fish, algae, and
aquatic plants while facilitating nutrient flow.
Components of ecosystem
3. Biotic (Living) Component  Heterotrophic Component (Consumers):
 Autotrophic Component (Primary  Saprophytes: Decomposers like fungi and bacteria
Producers): that break down organic material from dead plants
and animals, recycling nutrients back into the
 Phototrophs: Organisms, mainly green plants,
ecosystem.
that convert sunlight into energy through
photosynthesis, forming the base of the food chain. Example: In a forest floor ecosystem, fungi and
bacteria break down fallen leaves and dead wood,
Example: In a desert ecosystem, cacti and shrubs use
releasing nutrients back into the soil.
sunlight to create energy, providing food for desert
animals like insects and rodents.  Parasites: Organisms that depend on living hosts
for nutrition, often harming their hosts in the
 Chemotrophs: Certain bacteria that use chemical
process.
energy from inorganic substances (e.g., sulfur) to
produce food through chemosynthesis. These  Holozoic Organisms: Larger animals, including
organisms are crucial in environments where humans, that consume food through digestion,
sunlight is unavailable. relying on autotrophs or other animals for nutrition.
Example: In a deep-sea hydrothermal vent ecosystem,
bacteria use sulfur compounds to create food,
supporting unique species like giant tube worms.
 Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands of miles. There are two
types of ecosystem:

1. Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial ecosystems
distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:
 Forest Ecosystem
It consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic
factors of the environment. It helps in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.
 Grassland Ecosystem
In this ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands and tropical grasslands are
examples of grassland ecosystems.
 Tundra Ecosystem
It means devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most
of the year. Tundra type of ecosystem is found in the Arctic or mountain tops.
 Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall and scarce vegetation. The days are hot,
and the nights are cold.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into
two types, namely:
 Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
 Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and
greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.
Functions of Ecosystems
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
 It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and
renders stability.
 It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
 It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
 It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
 The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that
involve the exchange of energy.
Therefore, the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components
that work together in an ecosystem are:
 Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.
 Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows
from one trophic level to another. The energy captured from the sun
flows from producers to consumers and then to decomposers and finally
back to the environment.
 Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic
material. The top-soil is the major site for decomposition.
 Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled
back in various forms for the utilisation by various organisms.
What is Ecosystem Resilience ?
 Ecosystem resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to absorb disturbances, reorganize, and continue
to function in the face of external pressures or changes.
 It’s a critical concept in environmental science because it emphasizes the ability of natural systems to
persist, adapt, and transform while maintaining essential processes and services, such as food
production, water purification, and climate regulation.

Key Aspects of Ecosystem Resilience

1. Absorption: Ecosystems can absorb certain levels of disruption without losing their fundamental
structure and function.
For example, a forest ecosystem can endure periodic fires and still retain its characteristics over time.
2. Reorganization: After a disturbance, resilient ecosystems can reorganize and regenerate. This often
involves species that are adapted to recovery processes, such as plants that quickly re-grow after a fire or
animals that recolonize an area after flooding.
3. Adaptation and Transformation: Ecosystems adapt by adjusting their structures and functions in
response to gradual changes, such as climate shifts or species migrations.
Sometimes, this can lead to transformations, where ecosystems change significantly but remain functional
(e.g., shifting from a forest to a grassland ecosystem in response to drying climates).
Mechanisms of Resilience Factors Affecting Resilience
 Biodiversity: High biodiversity supports resilience  Climate Change: Extreme weather events (e.g.,
by ensuring that different species can fulfill similar droughts, hurricanes) and gradual changes (e.g.,
roles, providing redundancy. This means if one warming temperatures) can reduce resilience by
species declines, others can fill its ecological niche. causing persistent stress or altering environmental
conditions.
 Ecosystem Connectivity: Connections between
different ecosystems (like rivers linking forests and  Human Activities: Pollution, habitat destruction,
oceans) allow for species migration and resource and introduction of invasive species often degrade
flow, which supports resilience. ecosystem resilience by disrupting natural
processes and reducing biodiversity.
For example, birds migrating from one ecosystem to
another can help fertilize plants and disperse seeds.  Natural Disturbances: Events like fires, floods,
and storms can have both positive and negative
 Adaptive Capacity: Resilient ecosystems have
impacts on resilience.
species with diverse adaptations that allow them to
survive in changing conditions, like plants with For instance, while they can cause damage, they also
drought-resistant traits in arid regions. allow ecosystems to regenerate and increase species
diversity.
This capacity helps them respond to new environmental
pressures.
Ecosystem Diversity and Conservation
 Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety and 2. Genetic Diversity
variability of different ecosystems within a
region or across the planet. Within each species, there is genetic variability
 This diversity encompasses all forms of life, that allows populations to adapt to changing
habitats, ecological functions, and processes that conditions, such as disease, climate change, or
occur in various ecosystems, such as forests, habitat alteration.
oceans, grasslands, wetlands, and deserts.
Genetic diversity within ecosystems helps ensure
Levels of Diversity that species can evolve and survive over time.
1. Species Diversity 3. Habitat Diversity
Refers to the different species within an
Encompasses the range of physical environments
ecosystem. Each species plays a unique role
and contributes to the ecosystem's stability, or habitats found within an ecosystem, such as
resilience, and function. rivers, wetlands, mountains, and coastal
areas.
For example, a tropical rainforest has a high
species diversity, with thousands of plant, This diversity supports species that are specially
animal, and insect species interacting in adapted to specific environments, creating a rich
complex food webs. variety of life forms.
Conservation of Ecosystem
 Ecosystem Conservation involves protecting and managing natural ecosystems to preserve biodiversity,
maintain ecological functions, and support environmental sustainability.
 It aims to prevent habitat loss, promote species survival, and protect the natural processes that sustain life
on Earth.
 Conservation efforts are crucial to counteract threats from human activities like deforestation, pollution,
and climate change, which degrade ecosystems and reduce their resilience.

Key Strategies in Ecosystem Conservation

I. Protection of Natural Areas
II. Habitat Restoration
III. Sustainable Resource Management
IV. Community Involvement
V. Legislation and Policy
VI. Environmental Education and Awareness
 Thank you Everyone
Feel free to ask any questions.