Maxoell's Bridge

laxwell's bridge can be used to measure nductan-

b comparison eíther wih a varíable standard self
nductance tor) wtth a standard varlable capastance. These
meaSuremenks 'can be done by using the Hatuell's
bridge fn two d'levent #orm

Maxuoell' Inductanteidge
Dsing this brfdge we can measuse fnductance
comparing it uoith a standard raríable self nductance
arvanged in bridge ereult as shown n belou

AC
MMm
R

Sur'y D
Deree1o

w-
ww

(o) circuít daqram

www.Jntufastupdates.com 41

Phasor dogTam
V

CRtr)iyRx
Ri R
Consider Haraells ndu tanee bridge 42/64
n the g : To0 branches consfst of non-inducte
reslstances R and R One o the arms consst rafable
nducfance uth sertes resbtane . The remalning am
consists nknoun Ly

At balance., we get coditfon a

R R
Rtv)+JoL; Rx JwLx

R[RtjoL] R Leest) +JsL]

RRy+jsR Ly R:CR1) 1JioRLs
Equating naglnavy terms ge

RILx RLs Lx
Eauating Teal tems , oe ge

R, Rx R CRt7) =R« = tRat)

Ri
 It to one of the mask widely used a-c bridges o
the measusement o unknown eapacitors. diletrte toss

and power factor

The creult diagram dhouos

the connections of
Scherfng w

ww
bridgetcan be used
for lou Volfages The Cx A
Defeufo
perfet capacitor to be Suppla
measured. Rx ls series R
Tesistanc Ca is 6tandaxd
air
capaciteor haring very sable Yalue. R3 and Ry
ase non-Inductive res is kances while Cy s raialble capa-
Cibo Fom the qeneral balanee equatdion,

Now

Zs Rs

R
Zu Ry'. jRu (sRutyi)
wRuCy- =Rq- Rycy
CRuCu SwRuy1
R cu+

www.Jntufastupdates.com 54

**

Z Z2 R
Ru-o Rt (RaoRut4)

Ratrena lising Z Rs lito Ryc) CRetjoteu)

Ru1Rc
Rx-JL
wC
Rs.CR Re-e
Equating Teal and imagírarY parts

R C

R WL

Pouoer factbr (p-£):- The

power tattor of the serfe
Re combinaton s defned as the easine ok the phase
anle t G. circuft. Thus.
 LVDT- Lneat variable displacementTankduces
*Dsplqument is a vector uantty epreyent c
chan n poh?tion ot a body oth vepect to refeunu.
olth Ru hel f of dfhplaumenk trangduea mgn ofku
44ptiy kuth o for, Atrek, Presuve, velod ty c9n be
fbund
R main elecirteal dsplaamen: tranduu 00Tk

)Vafabu raistana; SErain guage

traniducer

www.Jntufastupdates.com 14

Rabl. nduel antt WiWiable diTferena

afable cputiepte. Porqlel plale rtandueer
capaeflor tranadue
snehvos qd Tejovers hqul al
drAplaumen
e mafn rorul adl bnu s vauisbla Foduelanu type
t for gh aces 3ood stabtLPty maka LYoT most
&ldable posttion
a
meajig devfa
a

natrwal+on 2 workinq
Ac

qtm
Fodt Jkplam re
2

Cote
Eoot
The linear varíablu
diffenentia| *qnaformer
matkka
aina primory uwdrtwo seendaay
woUnd on hallow a ods S, , S
SoF rm tsre
cytindieal for mex
sLily naidi tke orme
Sopt onco
h e 6atmdetiy have an esul no'ok tuy
but tRuy
re
mneckd tn &uly 0ppoAifon. so a t emta
in
cofl oPpphe each
îndutud
The ]P a. a.c 6ou
otha
Prom 50 H~20EH
ohose frejuanty is vaaiy

www.Jntufastupdates.com 15

ovqlo co
Tke qoartton of of tuo, nday
dj* noAÁUTe.d

c ercited priauj a dobe

ohith
Si diaplate menl n referenu potoE
 the lemperature coelticient of resistance
a

AT = the difference between the operating and the reference temperature

Thermistor
A thermistor is a semiconductor made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxide, such as oxides of
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.

Termistors have negative temperature coefficient (NTC). Thal is, the ir resistance decreases as
their temperature rises.

Types of thermistor Resistance

Disc to IMN

Washer to5Oka

Rod
high
resistance

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ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

This figure Mheatresistanc versus Temperature for a family thermistorjhe resistance value
marked at the b r t o m p n d o c s u e t a H e i t 25'C

TheSensig
resistancdereases a fHISGure rists-NTC T
Eleme vantagsol thermidt9ction
Smlesrandlow ost
Fy. 1591 espogg&.sTMEHmöcbapngrature range Flg. 13.42 Current through
Two dissimilar
Good senstieiyarkgative Temperalure Metals
Coefficient (NTC) region
Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence
of resistance on absolute temperature.

Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due

lo large resistance

Limitations of thermistor

N o n linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics

Unsuitable for wide temperature range

Very low excitation current to avoids self heating
Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc due to high resistance

Thermocouples
It consists of two wires of different metals are joined together at one end, a temperature
difference between this end and the other end of wires produces a votage between the wires. The
magnitude of this votage depends on the materials used for the wires and the amount of
temperature difference between the joined ends and the other ends.

A current will circulate around a loop made up of two dissimilar metal when the two junctions
are at different temperatures. When this circuit is opened, a voltiage appears that is
proportional to the observed seeback current. The Thomson and Peltier emfs onginate from
the fact that, within conductors, the density of free charge carriers (electrons and holes)
increases with temperature.

If the temperature of one end of a conductor is raised above that of the other end, excess
electrons fom the hot end will diffuse to the cold end. This results in an induced voltage
 75

ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Strain gauges

The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses electric resistance variation in
wires to sense the strain produced by a force on wres. t s a very versatile detector and

transducer for measuring weight, pressure, mechanical force, or displacement.

The construction of a bonded strain gauge (see figure) shows a fine wire element looped back

and forth on a mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the member undergoing stress. A

tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and decrease its crOss-
sectional area.

Bonded type strain gauges are three types, nam

I. Wire Strain Gauges

2. Foil Strain Gauge

3. Semiconductor Strain Gauge

1. Wire Strain Gauges:

Wire Strain Gauges has three types namely,

1. Grid type

2. Rossette type

3. Torque type

4. Helical type

of Serein

Flg.13.6 Grnd Type Strain Gauge

16- wANAN.jntufastupdates.com 76

ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

The grid arrange ment ot the Wire element in a bonded strain gauge creates a probiem not

encountered in the use of unbonded strain gauges. To be useful as a strain gauge, the wire
element must measure strain along one axis. Therefore complete and accurate analysis of strain
in a rigid member is impossible, unless the direction and magnitude of stress are known. The
measuring axis of a strain gauge is its longitudinal axis, which is parallel to the wire cle-ment, as

shown in Fig. 13.6.

When a strain occurs in the member being measured, along the transverse axis of the gauge.

also affects the strain being measured parallel to the longitudinal axis. This introduces an error in
 () (6
Fig. 13.17 ()Linear Dilferental Output Transducer
(b) Angutar Dilfererntial Output Transducer

Lincar Variable DifferentialTransducer (LVDT)

T h e differential transformer is a passive inductive transformer. It is also known as a

LinearVariable Differential Transducer (LVDT).

Pimey
winding U

Am
Sot Iron Cor
Dioplecement

Fa 13.19 Construction of a Linear Vareble Diferentiel Transducer (LVDT

Si
of
The translormer consists
PI
a single primary winding
and S2 wound on a holow cylindrical former. The secondary windings have an equal
and two secondary windings

9 www.jntufastupdates.com

ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

identically placed either side on of the primary windings.

number of turns andconnected
are

to an source. ac
primary winding is

affects the
An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and therefore
to be
the primary and the two secondaries. The displacement
magnetic coupling between
measured is to an arm attached to the soft iron core.
applied
When the core is in ts normal (mull) position, equal volages are mduced in the two

the primary winding ranges Irom

secondary windings. The frequency of the ac appied to

50 Hz to 20 kHz.
SI is Esl and that of secondary winding S$2
of the secondary windings
The output votage
is Es2.
the two
ordrr to cmnyeT the gutPut from SI to S2 into a
single vohage signal,
SAMPLINGOSCILLOSCOPE (VHE)
An ordinary Sampling Oscilloscope has a B. W. of 10 MHZ. The HF perlormance can be

improved by meuns o sampling the input wavelorm and reconstructing ts shape trom the

sample, ie. the signal to be observed is sampled und after a few cycles the sampling point is
advanced and another sample is taken. The shape of the waveform is reconstructed by joining the

Numple

60 4AAAMjntutastupdates.com

ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

levels together. The sampling frequency muy be us low as 1/10th of the input signal frequency (ir

the input signal frequeney is 100 MHz, the bundwidth of the CRO vertical amplifier can be as
low as 10 MHz). As many as 1000 samples are used to reconstruct the original waveform

Sampling
Gate Vertical
Amplifie
amping
Pulbe

Voltago Slirce8e
lort
Comparator LGenerator Slanal

Ramp
rator Attenuatot
Magnitude
OsCHlator

Troger Input
724 Sampling Osclloecope

Figure 7.24 shows a block diagram of a sampling oscillosCope. The input waveform is
pplhed to the sampling gate. The input waveform is sampled whenever a sampling pulse opens

the sampling gae. The samping must be synchronised with the input signal frequency. The

signal is delayed in thevertical amplifier, allowing the horizontal sweep to be initiated by the

input signal. The waveforms are shown in Fig. 7.25.

61- www.jntutastupdates.com 61

ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Puse

Sampling
Puse

AA
 Thus, the lrrquency ofvertica input is 5000 IHz
n cROS
the circuit diagram of
ASAMELNOOnoscoANNsi
sumpling
ET:
.
Draw
osclloncopo and uxplain its
oreration in detail
OR (ModalPoper, at|AprsMsy.Sasa,0so
Draw the simplite block diagr" of the
pertinent to the oporation. sampling osclloscope and
explalin. Draw the
vwaveforms
NovJDee12. Set2, 0stap1
OR NoDesA1, Sat-4. 0
ah a block diagrom oxplain the opcralion of a
sampling osciloscope.
OR Nav-1. Ses3.0s
wth the holp ol a circuit diagram Cxplain the
working of a sampling ascilloscope.
Anss
Kc anv du »n the
:cqtency »t input algaul lo vertical anuplitier Nov-10. Sct3. C
Ahh in vduc» the inage senst Ity n C'RO. ictcaes, nifng specd on tlbe CRO
alo h reas
Iigh freqUcney signals deand hugler
acktadag n-de voiisx. ilu; hs requkes lugher detleeliun veloeity whiclt can b ahicsed b
poential and bnglost slamand on the veruisal auplifiet.
So. ilar tligh Tqueney 19Wpsrkormnce vf
igusl cvn eted ie: lnw tieuueney ignal. For tis,nscilloscope
n
can he
impramcdby acans olsauling tochniquc. io ths. I
insle.ad f display iny the
tgulbr nievals and teennALTed in te forn1 of dals ou lhe seTeen. Tlie ngut signul cominuously samplesetafe tuke
tcconirustin of dals ginus a
suninueus sigthad or
Inpud Wovelorm Reconstucled
avelorm
Sampling Pulses L L
Tngger Aules JL
LL
Rrat Tume Ramp
i
Mernronlal Dellection vUt
Figure (i: Wavatorms
A WARNING:XeroaPha copying of this baok is a CRIMINAL ct. Aayone found guaty a UASLE 1o face LEGAL procredán
UNIT3 (scoscope) 101

Inpul
Sampling gate--[Verical ampliferVenels
t Sonplingpube
Psming
Triese BbckngRamp VolageLSureAse
eenerelar
Horicondel sip
scilbtcenerator comporator
Main
dTime seale AtenasierF
Flgare 2 Bock Dia gram ef Sempieg ucileuceps
is for short inkerval of
The inpul waveform repetidve in nalure is applied to sampling gate. The sampling ate opened
At the time of sappting, a ligger inpul puse is gencalcd
which aciveteg the blocking
nc nd dhe input waefom is sampled. which geoerals a lincar camp volage.Ths rung vohags s
e3cilaloc The oulput of this oscitlator is given to the ramp geneator via an auemustor wbich conios h
cdto votage comparator. Anoher inpus lo voltage comparator is from snircase gencruor
and when both ere equal in ampitude, staárcase
amplibade of staircase signal. The votage comparalor coapares the mwo signals and the sample aken in this sangiod
dhaocesa siep and sampling pulsc is genemted. This sampling pulse opcns the samplins cate
signalis furher applicd 1o vernical delectionplatesthrough vertical ampliher andappears as dan on CRT sccen.occurs
slne-wave. Asampling pulse evey
C24 Asamplmg osclloscope ie being used to observe a 400 MHz at the sanpled polnt on each of the fiv
3 m . Draw flve cycles of the 400 MHz slgnal and place a dot
ycles.
Ams
Tirar
 Active probes: As frequencies rise, the standard passive probes become less effective.
The effect of the
capacitance rises and the bandwidth is limited. To
overcome hese
difficulties active probes can be used. They have an
amplifier right
at the tip of the probe
enabling measure ments with very low levels of
capacitance to be made.
Frequencies of
several GHz are uchievable using active scope probes.
Diferential scope probes: In some instances it may be
necessary to measure differentíal
signals. Low level audio, disk drive signals and many more instances use
and these need to be measured such. One way of
as
different ial signals
different ial
achieving this is to probe both lines of the
signal using one probe each line as if there were two single ended
then using the
signals, and
oscilloscope to add then
differentially (i.e. subtract one from the other) too
providethedifference.

Using two
scope probes in this
way can give rise to a number of
that problems. The main one is
single ended measurements of this nature do
common mode
not give the required rejection of any
signals (ie. Common Mode Rejection Ratio, CMMR) and additional noise is
likely to be
present. There may be
a different cable
time differences and slight skewing between the
length on each probe that may lead to a
a
signals.

To overcome this a differential probe may be used. This uses

different ial amplifier a
at the
probing point to
provide the
required differential signal that is then
probe lead to the oscilloscope itself. This passed along the scope
approach provides a far higher level of
performance.
High voltage probes: Most standard
only specified for
oscilloscope voltage probes like the XI or X10
operation up to voltages of a few hundred volts
are
at most. For
higher than this a proper high operation
votage probe with specially insulated
voltage for the input to the scope so that the test probe required. It also
will step down the is
by the high voltage. Often instrument is not damaged
votage probes be may X50 or X100.

55
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