SESSION 1-1: Transmission Layout

1-1.1 Introduction

1-1.1.1 Definition
A transmission (also called power train) is any mechanism that transmits the power
developed by the engine of the automobile to the driving wheels and/or provides suitable
variation of the engine torque at the road wheels, whenever required. Basically, the
transmission modifies and transfers the power generated by the engine (also called power
plant) to the wheels for movement of the vehicle.

A transmission is composed of clutch, the gear box, propeller shaft, universal joints, rear axle,
wheel and tyres, as shown in Figure 1-1. Front-wheel drive and four-wheel drive vehicles
have in addition include a second set of propeller shafts, universal joints, final drives and
differentials for the front units.
Clutch or Torque Converter
Engine Propeller Shaft

Front Axle
Differential

Rear Axle Shaft

Transmission

Universal Joint

Figure 1-1: Layout of Transmission System of a Vehicle

1-1.1.2 Need for Transmission

A piston engine of a vehicle can produce limited speed and torque range. The speed ranges
from 2000 rpm to 4000 rpm, which is not wide enough to move the vehicle from zero to the
maximum speed limit without a transmission. The transmission provides means for expanding
the coverage of both speed and torque of piston engines in vehicles.

The total resistance of a motion of a vehicle consists of resistances due to wind, gradient, type
of road, tyre friction and other factors. The wind resistance is approximately proportional to
the square of wind speed, whereas the other factors remain fairly constant with the wind
speed. Hence, the total resistance is approximately proportional to the square of wind speed.

Whenever the tractive effort exceeds the total resistance, the vehicle will accelerate to a speed
and the speed reduces if the tractive effort becomes equal to the total resistance. In
transmissions, a lower gear produces a higher torque and lower speed than a higher gear. As a
vehicle begins to move, high acceleration is needed to gain speed quickly. This can best be
achieved through the use of the first gear because in this gear the maximum tractive effort is
available for acceleration. When the necessary speed has been obtained, the gear must be
shifted to higher gears. At that stage the vehicle speed has to be simply maintained and the
tractive force becomes equal to the resistance.

1-1.1.3 Requirements of Transmission System

The requirements (or functions) of a transmission system are:
1. Provide a varied leverage between the engine and the drive wheels.
2. Provide means for transferring power in the opposite direction.
3. Enable power transmission at varied angles and varied lengths.
4. Enable speed reduction between engine and the drive wheels
5. Enable diversion of power flow at right angles.
6. Provide means for driving the driving wheels at different speeds when required.
7. Provides a neutral position so that the engine and the road wheels are disconnected
even with the clutch in the engaged position.
8. Provides means of connection and disconnection of engine with rest of power train
without shock and smoothly.

1-1.2 Types of Transmission Systems

The transmission systems (or transmissions) are generally classified into the manual and the
automatic types. The manual transmissions, which are conventionally called gear boxes, have
mechanical efficiencies of about 98% when they are in direct drive whereas in reduction
gears, they are slightly greater than 90%. The automatic transmissions are classified into the
Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVTs) e.g. Audi with Multitronic and Honda with
Multimatic, and the Automated Manual Transmissions (AMTs), eg. Audi with DSG.
 1-1.3 Clutch

1-1.3 Clutch
The clutch is placed between the flywheel of an engine and the transmission (gear). It allows
transfer of motion between two co-axial shafts. Functional, requirements and applications of
clutches in automobile transmission systems are treated in detail in Unit 2. In automatic
transmissions, the clutch is replaced by torque converter (fluid coupling in the old automatic
transmissions)

1-2.1.1 Functions of a Clutch

The functions of a clutch are:

1. To permit engagement or disengagement of a gear when the vehicle is stationary and the
engine is running.
2. To transmit the engine power to the road wheels smoothly without jerk or shock to the
transmission system while setting the wheel in motion.
3. To permit the engaging of gears when the vehicle is in motion without damaging the gear
wheels.
The most widely used form of clutch is the friction type. This may be:

a) The cone clutch which is now only used in the synchromesh units of gear boxes, and in over
drive and some epicyclic gear boxes:

b) The single- plate clutch (multi spring or diaphragm spring) which is used in most cars and
small commercial vehicles:

c) The multi- plate clutch which is used in motor-cycle and in some racing cars and tractors, and
also in special type of very heavy commercial and civil engineering vehicles.

The single- and multi plate friction clutches are usually dry types but some wet types are still in
use. In these cork- insert or phosphorous- bronze plate are fitted between steel plates, all the
plate being immersed in oil.

Other forms of clutch are coming into wider use and generally form part of the pre- selector
through pedal, or fully automatic transmission system. These are the centrifugal and magnetic
clutch, the fluid flywheel and the hydraulic torque converter.
The single plate clutch

Single- plate clutch (multi spring)

The single- plate clutch consist of a center plate which is clamped between two other plates. The
two out plates are driven by the engine crank shaft, and in turn drive the center plate which is
mounted upon the splined gear box input shaft. The real face of the flywheel is used as one
driving plate and the second, or pressure plate is mounted inside the clutch body which is bolted
to the flywheel. the pressure plate is forced towards the flywheel by set of strong springs which
are arranged radially inside the body. Three levers, or fingers, are carried on pivots suspended
from the case of the body and are so arranged as to be able to press the pressure plate away from
the flywheel by the inward movement of a carbon or ball thrust- release bearing. The bearing is
mounted upon a fork and is moved forward by the depression of the clutch pedal. The
connection between the pedal and the shaft may be made by means of rods, cables, chain or by
hydraulic system.

The hub of the center plate is free to move along the splines of the gear box input shaft, and
carries a disc to which are riveted friction linings of an asbestos material. The disc is only
connected to its hub through a set of strong radially arranged springs. The linings are made to
flex or separate slightly when not under load. This is obtained by the off setting or crimping of
the segmented outer edge of the disc, and is done to reduce the tendency of the lining to stick to
the driving plates during release. It also help in obtaining a smoother take up of torque at the
beginning of the r engagement action.
OPERATION

RELEASE

When the clutch pedal is depressed, its linkage forces the thrust release bearing to move in
towards the flywheel, pressing the longer ends of the fingers inward. The fingers are forced to
turn on their suspended pivot and so press the pressure plate away from the flywheel by the
knife edge, at the same time compressing the clutch springs. This action removes the pressure
from the centre plates and, by reducing the friction between the driving and driven plates
releasing the gear box input shaft from the crank shaft torque.

ENGAGEMENT

When the fresh gear train has been engaged, the clutch pedal is steadily released. The fingers
now move out and allow the springs to extend and force the pressure plate back towards the
flywheel. As this happens the friction linings on the centre plate disc are griped between the
driving plate and as the friction increases are forced to rotate at a speed different from that of the
hub of the gearbox input shaft. The center plate radial springs are therefore compressed and so
cushion the shock of the initial torque take up. As the input shaft and the crank shaft match
speed, the radial springs extend and the engine torque is transmitted through them to the gear
box. Small torque irregularities are also absorb by this springs being slightly compressed and
released during normal running.

It is important that there should be about nineteen mm of free pedal play (movement) this allows
the release bearing to move about 1.5 mm away from the fingers and so prevent clutch slip
being caused externally.

MULTI PLATE CLUTCHES

This may be wet or dry types and, because of their increased number of friction faces in contact,
they can operate efficiently with individually weaker springs. This makes them smoother and
easier to operate than the equivalent single plate type.

Multi plate clutches may be used:

a) where space is very limited, example in automatic transmissions and in motor cycle.

In the latter, a multi- plate clutch of small diameter transmit approximately the same torque as a
single-plate clutch of more than twice it diameter

b) where very large torques have to be transmitted, example in heavy commercial vehicles,
racing cars, and special purpose military and Agricultural vehicles. in this, the increased number
of plates provide the increased torque- transmitting ability of the clutch.

Smaller types.
Probably the most common use of the multi plate clutch in vehicles is in pre- slector gear boxes
and in automatic transmissions. In this unit, the clutches are similar to those used in some motor
cycles, ie wet metal- plate types. The plates are annulus- shaped and the driving and driven
plates are arranged alternately. The driving plates are themselves driven through their external
lugs which projects through slots in a cover bolted to the fly wheel or other driving members.
The driven plates inturn drive the gear box shaft or other driven member through their internal
lugs which fits into spline. One set of plate may be of steel and the other of phosphors bronze
sintered bronze which is porous and so retains oil. As the plates operates in oil at all times, their
life is long and a smooth take up is obtained.

Multi – plate clutch

The plates are all forced towards the driving member by radially arranged springs, and a simple
released mechanism is provided.

Commercial vehicle types.

These are usually dry, two- plate type. Their construction is similar to the normal clutch but the
flywheel is deeply recessed. Two separate rigid type, centre plates are carried by the gear box
input shaft, and the intermediate and the pressure plate are page driven by the flywheel. About
twenty thrust springs are fitted, and the released fingers are mounted on needle roller bearings, a
clutch plate is incorporated with a heavy- duty ball bearing release mechanism.
 Semi-Centrifugal Clutch

At normal speeds, when the power transmission is low, the springs keep the clutch engaged,
the weighted levers do not have-any pressure on the pressure plate. At high speed, when the
power transmission is high, the weights fly off and the levers also exert pressure on the plate,
keeping the clutch firmly engaged. Thus, instead of using springs of high stiffness for keeping
the clutch engaged firmly at high speeds, springs of low stiffness may be used. Therefore, the
driver applies less effort to engage the clutch.

Semi centrifugal clutch

 Centrifugal Clutch

Axial Type
The working principles of centrifugal clutches are similar to governors. In the fully
centrifugal type of clutches, the springs are eliminated altogether and only the centrifugal
force is used to apply the required pressure for keeping the clutch in engaged position. The
advantage of the centrifugal clutch is that no separate clutch pedal is required. The clutch is
operated automatically depending upon the engine speed. This means that car can be stopped
in gear without stalling the engine. Similarly while starting, the driver can first select the gear,
put the car into the gear and simply press the accelerator pedal. This makes the driving
operation very easy.

Figure below shows a schematic diagram of a centrifugal clutch. As the speed increases, the
weight of the fly ball (also called Bod weight) at A flies, thereby operating the bell crank
lever B which presses the plate C. This force is transmitted to the plate D by means of springs
E. The plate D containing friction lining is thus pressed against the flywheel F thereby
engaging the clutch. Spring G serves to keep the clutch disengaged at low speed, say, 500
rpm. The stop H limits the amount of centrifugal force.

RELEASE MECHANISM

Mechanical Clutch Linkage

This type of clutch linkage has a system of levers that provides a force of about 100 N to 120 N at
the clutch pedal to release the clutch. The clutch linkage transmits the force applied to the clutch
pedal to the throw out or release bearing and provides the necessary linkage to make the clutch
operation possible with a reasonable amount of foot pressure.

The clutch linkage for this purpose is illustrated in Figure below. On pressing the clutch pedal, the
shaft A turns, which moves the fork lever and then through shaft B, actuates the release fork to press
the thrust bearing. This movement is further conveyed to clutch levers to disengage the clutch.
Generally, mechanical leverage from 10:1 to 12:1 is employed, which require pedal force of about
100-120 N.
Clutch mechanical linkage

HYDRAULIC
Clutch cable Linkage with Automatic Adjuster
The figure below shows a typical mechanical linkage clutch actuator. The release bearing is of the
ball race type and is kept in constant contact with the fingers of the diaphragm spring by the action
of the pedal self-adjustment mechanism. In consequence, there is no pedal free movement
adjustment required. When the pedal is released, the adjustment pawl is no longer engaged with the
teeth on the pedal quadrant. However, the cable is tensioned by the spring installed between the
pedal and the quadrant. As the pedal is depressed, the pawl engages in the nearest vee between the
teeth. The particular tooth engagement position will gradually change as the components move to
compensate for wear in the clutch driven plate and stretch in the cable.
 Clutch Cable Linkage with Automatic Adjuster

Mechanical systems of clutch operation were used for many years, and are still used in the
heavier vehicles. while they adequate for more or less rigidly mounted engine and clutch
assemblies, they are unsuitable for modern and smaller engine installations. In this, the engines
are arranged much lower in the chassis and they are carried in very flexible mountings which
allow considerable movement between the clutch and the pedal. Judder, caused by engine
movement, has being eliminated by the use of hydraulic systems of clutch operations.

The hydraulic systems consist of a master cylinder, a relay or slave cylinder, and a strong
connecting pipe. The system must be full of fluid and free of air at all times. The force exerted
at the pedal is converted, by the master cylinder into pressure on the fluid. In the slave cylinder,
the pressure is at once converted back into a force which moves the cross shaft to disengage the
clutch. When the clutch is released the thrust spring act to return the slave piston, which in turn
forces the fluid back to the master cylinder. A standing fluid pressure is not maintained and
there is no check valve in the master cylinder.

Where both the brakes and the clutch are hydraulically operated, the pedals are usually of the
suspended types. Two separate master cylinders or one twin- ball master cylinder may be fitted.
DIAGRAM

The slave cylinder is clamped or bolted to the bell housing, with its push rod connected to the
cross- shaft lever. In many vehicles, the cross shaft is now replaced by a Y-shaped steel pressing
carried on a ball pivot inside bell housing.

NOTE.

The feel of the pedal in this systems gives no reliable indication of the existence or otherwise of
a clearance at the release bearing.

In the lock heed system, the push rod of the master cylinder must be adjusted to provide 4mm
clearance between the end of the rod and the piston. These ensure an adequate clearance for the
release bearing. Where lining wear is automatically compensated, eg in unit with a diaphragm
spring, no other adjustment is provided. Where the older type of clutch is used, in which lining
wear results in the loss of release bearing clearance, an adjustment is provided on the slave push
rod. This must be set to give a clearance of 1.5mm between the end of push rod and the cross or
Y shaft. The latter adjustment will need checking at intervals during the life of the clutch.

Centre plates ( clutch driven plate)

Clutch units must have the following features:

(a) A smooth and gradual ‘take up’ of the crankshaft torque –no slip, snatch or judder.

(b) A clean- cut interruption or break in the transmission of torque – no drag or spin.

( c) The ability to absorb small torque irregularities which would otherwise result in
transmission noise and extra stress and wear.) The ability to dissipate heat.

To a large extent these important features are realized by using carefully designed and
constructed centre plates. These consist essentially of a light- weight, hardened and tempered,
flexible steel disc which has relatively heavy steel hub at its centre. The hub is splined and is
carried upon the splined gearbox input, or spigot shaft. An annulus-shaped friction lining of
asbestos- based materialis riveted to each side of the disc. Some linings are now chemically
bonded to the disc. Centre plates may be rigid or flexible and there are different forms of each
type.

Rigid types.

In these there is no relative movement between the lining and the disc, and the hub. The disc is
annulus –shaped and is riveted to the hub. The linings are riveted to the dished steel segment
which are them selve riveted around the circumference of the disc. In another form the disc
itself is sloted radially and the resulting segments are ‘set’ alternately- rather like the teeth of a
saw. The alternate off setting of the segment is called ‘crimping ; and the lining at each side are
riveted to alternate segment. The combination of these two arrangement result in the lining
moving apart but when the clutch is disengage, i.e. they flex on the flywheel. The effect of the
crimping are to:

(a) make the centre plate move away from the flywheel when the clutch is disengage reducing
drag.

sketch

(b) provide a more gradual and smoother engagement- the lining being forced together over a
greater distance of pedal travel- no snatch or judder.

(c) allow air to pass between the lining to carry away heat while the clutch is disengage-
coefficient of friction maintained.

Rigid types are usually to be found in multi-plate clutches, in heavy commercial vehicles, and a
racing and trials cars.

Flexible type

In these a certain amount of radical movement is allowed between the lining and the disc, and
the hub.

The disc and its lining carrying segments are similar to those of the rigid types, but the only
connection between the disc and its hub is made through a sett of radially disposed springs.
These are fitted into slots formed in the hub, and in the disc and its support, and the end of the
springs pressed very hard against the ends of the slots. The disc and the hub are riveted together
but the rivet holes through the hub are elongated to permit the required radial movement. The
estent of the movement is controlled by the springs. These are compressed as the drive is first
taken up ( the disc moving while the hub is held back ) and then they estend to their normal
length as the hub follows the disc. The action of the the spring is therefore to absorb or cushion
and in inevitable shock of connecting shaft which are running at different speeds. They also
absorb small torque irregularities during normal running.

In another form of flexible centre plate the hub and the disc are rubber. These rubber, as it is
distorted at take-up, has the same cushioning effect as the radial springs. In some heavy vehicles
clutches, the cushioning effect is obtained by the use of layrub type of joint to connect the hub
to the disc.

Lining materials

The material most commonly used for clutch lining has an asbestos base. This is fibrous mineral
which can be woven or powdered. After being mixed with resins and other binding materials,
and possibly being reinforced by zinc or brass wire, it is compressed into moulds of the required
shape, and it then baked.

As a lining material the finished product has a coefficient of friction when used dry with steel,
of about 0.3 and this does not reduce very much as it temperature is increased in operation. It is
a fairly hard- wearing material which can resist high temperatures and pressures, and to some
extent it is oil resistant. When the linings have been riveted to the disc they should be ground to
make certain that their faces are at right angles to the axis of the plate. In some modern plates,
the linings may be chemically bonded to the disc.

Pictorial view of clutch centre plate.

Clutch brakes

When centre plate have to be of relatively large diameter and weight they turn to keep rotating
too long after the clutch is released, i.e. they suffer badly from spin, as this makes gear changing
very difficult, many of the large clutches incorporates some form of clutch brake. This is
brought into operation during the final movement of the release mechanism, a pad or disc lined
with friction material being forced into contact with a disc attached either to the centre plate
hub’ or to the gearbox input shaft.

1-2.4.1 Mechanical Clutch Linkage

This type of clutch linkage has a system of levers that provides a force of about 100 N to 120 N at
the clutch pedal to release the clutch. The clutch linkage transmits the force applied to the clutch
pedal to the throw out or release bearing and provides the necessary linkage to make the clutch
operation possible with a reasonable amount of foot pressure.

The clutch linkage for this purpose is illustrated in Figure 1-15. On pressing the clutch pedal, the
shaft A turns, which moves the fork lever and then through shaft B, actuates the release fork to press
the thrust bearing. This movement is further conveyed to clutch levers to disengage the clutch.
Generally, mechanical leverage from 10:1 to 12:1 is employed, which require pedal force of about
100-120 N.

Figure 1-15: Clutch Linkage

Clutch cable Linkage with Automatic Adjuster

Figure 1-16 shows a typical mechanical linkage clutch actuator. The release bearing is of the ball
race type and is kept in constant contact with the fingers of the diaphragm spring by the action of the
pedal self-adjustment mechanism. In consequence, there is no pedal free movement adjustment
required. When the pedal is released, the adjustment pawl is no longer engaged with the teeth on the
pedal quadrant. However, the cable is tensioned by the spring installed between the pedal and the
quadrant. As the pedal is depressed, the pawl engages in the nearest vee between the teeth. The
particular tooth engagement position will gradually change as the components move to compensate
for wear in the clutch driven plate and stretch in the cable.

Figure 1-16: Clutch Cable Linkage with Automatic Adjuster

1-2.4.2 Fluid Actuating Mechanism

In heavy-duty mechanically operated clutches with high clutch- spring pressure, the force required by
the driver to release the clutch becomes excessive. This can be remedied by the use of hydraulic
operation. This type of operation is also suitable for vehicles in which the clutch pedal and the clutch
have to be located too far away from each other. Fluid actuating mechanisms are either hydraulic or
vacuum types. Hydraulically actuated clutch may be either single plate type or the more modem
multi plate type.
Hydraulic Single Plate Clutch Actuator
Figure 1-17 shows a hydraulically operated clutch. When the clutch pedal is pressed the fluid under
pressure from the master cylinder reaches the slave cylinder which is mounted on the clutch itself.
The fluid under pressure actuates slave cylinder push rod which further operates the clutch release
fork to disengage the clutch.

Figure 1-17: Hydraulically Operated Single Plate Clutch

The detailed construction of the clutch master cylinder has been shown in Figure 1-18. In engaged
condition when the clutch pedal is in the released position, the push rod rests against its stop due to
the pedal return spring. Also the pressure of master cylinder spring keeps the plunger in its back
position. The flange at the end of the valve shank contacts the spring retainer. As the plunger has
moved to its rear position, the valve shank has the valve seal lifted from its seat and seal spring
compressed. Hydraulic fluid can then flow past the three distance pieces and valve seal in either
direction. This means the pressure in the slave cylinder then is atmospheric and the clutch remains in
its engaged position.

However, when the clutch pedal is pressed to disengage the clutch, the initial movement of the push
rod and plunger permits the seal spring to press the valve shank and seal against its seat. This
disconnects the cylinder from the reservoir. Further movement of the plunger displaces fluid through
the pipelines to the slave cylinder and disengages the clutch. The construction of the slave cylinder is
made clear by means of Figure 1-9. The return spring in the slave cylinder maintains some pressure
on the release fork so that the thrust bearing is always in contact with the release levers. Moreover, in
case of wear of clutch facing, the return spring and the piston move out automatically to take up the
tilt of the release fork lever.

Unlike cables, hydraulic operation does not involve frictional wear, especially when subjected to
large forces. Due to this reason hydraulic operation is particularly suitable for heavy duty application

Free Play Pedal

The clutch should have a free play pedal in order to reduce effective clamping load on the
thrust bearing and wear on it.

SESSION 2-2: Manual Gearbox

The manual transmissions are conventionally called gear boxes. Mechanical efficiency of
gearbox in direct drive is about 98%, whereas in reduction gears, it is slightly greater than 90%.
As most of the time the driving is done in direct drive, friction losses in manual transmissions
are very small.
On the other hand the operation of engaging and disengaging the clutch along with changing of
gears while driving over a crowded highway means a lot of fatigue to the driver. Therefore, in
luxury vehicles automatic transmissions are employed which simplify the driving operation
considerably.

2-2.1 Types of Gearboxes

Sliding mesh type of gear box is the oldest type of manual transmission used in automobiles.
However, in this type the mechanical efficiency was very low and the noise level was quite
high. Moreover the driver required considerable skill in changing the gears. An improvement
was achieved in the form of a constant mesh gear box, which resulted in higher mechanical
efficiencies and lower noise level due to the use of helical gears instead of straight spur gears in
case of sliding mesh type. Still the driver had to adopt double declutching to change gears. A
further improvement with the help of synchromesh device solved this problem. Currently
synchromesh types of gearboxes are the universally used type of automotive manual
transmission. Figure 2-2 shows a typical five-speed synchromesh gearbox. Epicyclic or
Planetary type gearbox is discussed in Unit 4. 2-2.1.1 Sliding Mesh Gearbox

Construction
This gearbox consists of gears mounted the main shaft by means of splines. The splines allow
the gears to move right or left to mesh with appropriate gears on the lay shaft for obtaining
different speeds. All the gears on the lay shaft are fixed to it and as such the all rotate when the
engine is running and the clutch engaged. This type of gear box derives its name from the fact
that the gears are meshed by sliding or crashing one on to the other.
Figure 2-2: Longitudinal Section of Mercedes Benz GL 68/20-5, 5-Speed Synchromesh
Gearbox

First Gear
Figure 2-3 illustrates the sliding mesh gearbox in the first position. When the gear shift lever is
applied such that gear 6 meshes with gear 5, and gear 4 does not mesh with gear 3. When the
clutch shaft is rotating, the drive is transmitted from gear 1 to gear 2. Thus the counter shaft is
also rotated. The direction of rotation of counter shaft is opposite to that of the clutch shaft.
When the counter shaft is rotating, gear 5 drives gear 6. Therefore, gear 6 rotates with the main
shaft. Thus the drive is transmitted along gears 1, 2, 5 and 6.

Second Gear
Figure 2-4 illustrates the sliding mesh gearbox in the second position. Gear 4 is shown in mesh
with gear 3. When the clutch shaft is rotating, the transmission takes place between gears 1 and
2, and 3 and 4; the gear 4 rotates with the main shaft. The second gear is developed on the basis
of the sizes of the gears

Third Gear
Figure 2-4 illustrates the sliding mesh gearbox in the third position. In this gear, the teeth of gear
4 is directly meshed with gear 1. The main shaft is in direct contact with the clutch shaft.
Therefore, the main shaft acquires the same speed of the clutch shaft. This is the position for this
gear.
 (a) (b)

Figure 2-3: Sliding Mesh Gearbox in First Gear Position

Figure 2-4: Sliding Mesh Gearbox in Second Gear Position

 Figure 2-5: Sliding Mesh Gearbox in Third Gear Position

Reverse Gear
Figure 2-6 illustrates the sliding mesh gearbox in the third position. In the reverse gear the
transmission takes place form gears 1 to 2, 7 to 8 and then to 6. The small intermediate gear 8
(idler) causes the reverse position of the gear box. In this arrangement, the speed reduction is
usually same as that in the first gear.

Figure 2-6: Sliding Mesh Gearbox in Reverse Gear Position

Neutral Gear
In this arrangement the clutch shaft is in connection with the counter or lay shaft. As the lay
shaft is not connected to the main shaft, there is no power transmission to the wheels.
 Figure 2-7: Sliding Mesh Gearbox in Reverse Gear Position

2-2.1.2 Constant Mesh Gearbox

It is that gearbox in which all the gears are in constant mesh with each other all the time and this
gives a silent or quiet operation, as illustrated in Figure 2-8. Here, helical gears are used to make
gear changing easier. The gears on the counter or lay shaft are, however, fixed. Two dog (or
positive) clutches are provided on the main shaft-one between the clutch gear and the second
gear and the other between the low/first gear and reverse gear. The positive clutch can slide on
the main shaft and rotates with it.

When the left-hand dog clutch is made to slide to the left by means of the gearshift lever, it
meshes with the clutch gear and the top speed gear is obtained. When the dog clutch meshes
with the second gear the second .speed gear is obtained. Similarly by sliding the right-hand dog
clutch to the left and right, the first speed gear and reverse gear are obtained respectively.
However skillful handing is necessary on the part of the driver so that the speed of the locking
dogs and respective pinion remain the same to effect a clash-free gear change.

2-2.1.3 Synchromesh Gearbox

This type of gear box is similar to the constant mesh type in that all the gears on the main shaft
are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears on the lay shaft. The gears on the lay shaft are
fixed to it while those on the main shaft are free to rotate on it. Its working is also similar to the
constant mesh type, but in the former there is one definite improvement over the latter. This is
the provision of synchromesh device which avoids the necessity of double declutching. The
parts which ultimately are to be engaged are first brought into frictional contact which equalizes
their speed, after which these may be engaged smoothly. Comparison of sliding mesh, constant
mesh and synchromesh gearboxes are list in Table 2-2.
Figure 2-9 shows the construction and working of a synchromesh gear box. In most cars,
however, the synchromesh devices are not fitted to all the gears as is shown in the figure. They
are fitted only on the high gears and on the low and reverse gears ordinary positive clutches are
only provided. This is done to reduce the cost. Samples of synchromesh devices are shown in
Figure 2-10.

Figure 2-8: Constant Mesh Gear box

 Figure 2-9: Synchromesh Gearbox

2-2.1.4 Gear Synchronization Unit

It is that gear box in which sliding synchronizing units are provided in place of sliding dog
clutches as in case of constant mesh gear box. With the help of synchronization unit, the speed
of both the driving and driven shafts is synchronized before they are clutched together through
train of gears. The arrangement of power flow for the various gears remains the same as in the
constant mesh gear box.

Synchromesh gear devices work on the principle that two gears to be engaged are first brought
into frictional contact which equalizes their speed after which they are engaged readily and
smoothly, as illustrated in Figure 2-10. The following types of such devices are mostly used in
vehicles: (i) pin type and (ii) synchronizer ring type. A synchronizing system is used for smooth
meshing. Synchromesh works like a friction clutch. Samples of synchronizing devices are
shown in Figure 2-11.
 Figure 2-10: Synchromesh Unit

(a)Two Cones as Friction Clutch

(b) Collar Meshing with Gear Wheel Figure 2-11: Samples of Synchronizing Devices

Table 2-2: Comparison of Selective Type Gear Boxes

Sliding Mesh Constant Mesh Gearbox Synchromesh Gearbox
Gearbox
Simplest design. Better design. Most advanced design.
 Meshing of gears The main shaft gear is It enables rapid gear change to be made
takes place by provided with dog clutches without noisy engagement or clashing
sliding of gears on which provides means of of teeth: It also simplifies shifting
each locking the freely. Rotating action for the driver as the synchronizer
of main shaft gears with the itself adjust the members to the
main shaft makes an easier coupled so as to provide perfect dog
gear change. teeth engagement. Thus matching of
the gears is automatically done by
synchronizer resulting in smooth and
silent coupling. It reduces the wearing
of gear.

Considerable skill Skilful and timely hand and Quite satisfactory for high speed cars
is needed to make a foot movements are required
gear change in order that the speed of the
without damaging locking dogs and respective
the gear teethpinion are equal for a clash
during meshing free gear change. The driver
has to match the speed of the
gears to be engaged by
double declutching.

2-2.1.5 Progressive Type Gear Boxes

These gears boxes are usually used in motor cycles. In this type of transmission, the-gears pass
through the intervening speeds while shifting from one speed to another. There is a neutral
position between any two sequential positions as shown in Figure in the case of a four-speed
gearbox.

N N N
1 E 2 E 3 E 4
U U U
T T T
R R R
A A A
L L L

Figure 2-12: Shift Order of Four-Speed Progressive Gearbox

These gear boxes are a combination of sliding and constant mesh gear boxes. The various gear
speeds are obtained by sliding the dog clutch or gear to the required position.
2-2.2 Gear Selection and Engagement Mechanisms

2-2.2.1 Introduction
There are many mechanisms which have been used for selecting the desired gear and sliding the
same to engage with the corresponding Gear on the lay shaft. Broadly speaking these can be
divided into two categories, viz. the mechanisms where the gear shift lever is mounted on the
top of transmission case and the ones where the gear shift lever is mounted on the steering
column. However in these two types most of the mechanism is similar and only the external
linkage is different.
Gear selection and engagement is achieved by two distinct movements:
1. The selection of the required gear shift gate and position of the engagement gate lever,
2. The shifting of the chosen selector gate rod into the engagement gear position.
These two operations are generally performed through the media of the gear shift lever and
remote control tube/rod. Any transverse movement of the gear shift lever by the driver selects
the gear shift gate and the engagement of the gate is obtained by longitudinal movement of the
gear shift lever.
Movement of the gear shift lever is conveyed to the selection mechanism via the remote control
tube. Initially the tube is twisted to select the movement of the tube to engage the appropriate
gear.
For the gear shift control to be effective, it must have some sort of flexible linkage between the
gear shift lever support on the floor of the driver’s compartment and the engine and transmission
integral unit which is suspended on rubber mountings. This is essential to prevent engine and
transmission vibrations being transmitted back to the body and floor pan and subsequently
causing discomfort to the driver and passengers.

2-2.2.2 Double Rod and Bell Crank Lever Gear Shift Mechanism
This mechanism is suitable for both four and five speed transverse mounted gearbox and used
commonly in Talbot vehicles. The mechanism is shown in Figure 2-13. Twisting the remote
control tube transfers movement to the first selector link rod. This motion is the redirected at
right angles to the transverse gate selector/engagement shaft via the selector relay crank bell
lever to position the required gear gate. A forward or backward movement of the remote control
tube now conveys motion via the first engagement relay crank bell lever, engagement link rod
and second relay lever to rotate the transverse gate selector/engagement shaft. Consequently,
this shifts the transverse selector/engagement shaft so that it pushes the synchronizing sliding
sleeve into engagement with the selector gear dog teeth.
 Figure 2-13: Double Rod and Bell Crank Lever Gear Shift Mechanism

2-2.2.3 Bell Crank Lever Gear Shift Mechanism

This mechanism is suitable for four speed transverse mounted gearbox and commonly used in
Ford vehicles. The mechanism is shown in Figure 2-13. Gear selection and engagement
movement is conveyed from the gear shift lever pivot action to remote control rod universal
joint and to the control shift and relay lever guide. Rocking the gear shift lever transversely
rotates the control shaft and relay guide. This tilts the selector relay lever and subsequently the
selection relay lever guide and shaft until the striker finger aligns with the chosen selector gate.
A further push or pull movement to the gear shift lever by the driver then transfer a forward or
backward motion via the remote control rod, control shaft and relay lever guide to the
engagement relay lever. Movement is then redirected at right angles to the selector relay guide
and shaft. Engagement of gear required is finally obtained by the selector/engagement shaft
forcing the striking finger to shift the gate and selector fork along the single selector rod so that
the synchronizing sleeve meshes with the appropriate gear wheel dog clutch.
 Figure 2-14: Bell Crank Lever Gear Shift Mechanism

2-2.2.4 Sliding Ball Joint Gear Shift Mechanism

This mechanism is commonly used in VW vehicles and is suitable for both four and five speed
longitudinal or transverse mounted gearbox. The mechanism is shown in Figure 2-15. Selection
and engagement of different gear ratios is achieved with a swivel ball end pivot gear shift lever
actuating a single remote control rod through a sliding ball relay lever. The remote control rod
transfers both rotary and push/pull movement to the gate selector and engagement shaft.

This single rod sliding ball remote control linkage can be used with either longitudinally or
transversely mounted gearboxes, but with the latter an additional relay lever mechanism (not
shown) is needed to convey the two distinct movements of selection and engagement through a
right angle.
 Figure 2-15: Sliding Ball Joint Gear Shift Mechanism

2-2.2.5 Double Rod and Hinged Relay Joint Gear Shift Mechanism
This mechanism is utilized in some VW vehicles and is suitable for both four and five speed
longitudinal mounted gearbox. With this layout the remote control is provided by a pair of
remote control rods, one turns and selects the gear gate when the gear shift lever is given a
transverse movement, while the other pushes or pulls when gear shift lever is moved
longitudinally, as shown in Figure 2-16.
 Figure 2-16: Double Rod and Hinged Relay Joint Gear Shift Mechanism

2-2.2.6 Single Rod with Self Aligning Bearing Gear Shift Mechanism
A simple and effective method of selecting and engaging the various gear ratios suitable for
commercial vehicles where the driver cab is forward of the gearbox is shown in Figure 2-17.
Movement of the gear shift lever in transverse and longitudinal directions provides both rotation
and a push/push action to the remote control tube, which shift the gear to the desired selection. It
should be noted that self-aligning bearing allows the remote control tube to slide to and fro. At
the same time it permits the inner race member to tilt to accommodate any relative movement
between the gearbox and chassis. This mechanism is utilized in some Ford vehicles and is
suitable for both five and six speed longitudinal mounted gearbox.
 Figure 2-17: Double Rod and Hinged Relay Joint Gear Shift Mechanism

2-2.2.7 Single Rod with Swing Arm Support Gear Shift Mechanism
This arrangement, shown in Figure 2-18, is used extensively on commercial vehicles. It employs
a universal cross-pin joint to transfer both the gear selection and engagement motion to the
remote control tube. Turning this remote control tube by giving the gear shift lever a transverse
movement pivots the suspended selector gate relay so that the transverse gate
selector/engagement shift moves across the selector gates until it aligns with the selected gate.
The gear shift lever is given to and fro movement, which causes the transverse
selector/engagement shaft to rotate, thereby forcing the striking finger to move the selector rod
and fork. Misalignment between the gear shift lever support mounting and the gear shift
mechanism forming part of the gearbox is compensated by the swing rod which provides a
degree of float for the selector gate relay lever pivot point.
 Figure 2-18: Single Rod with Swing Arm Support Gear Shift Mechanism

2-2.3 Gear Ratios

Matching the engine’s performance characteristics to suit a vehicle’s operating requirements is

provided by choosing a final drive gear reduction and then selecting a range of gear ratios for
maximum performance in terms of the ability to climb gradients, achievement of good
acceleration through the gears and ability to reach some predetermined maximum speed on a
level road.

2-2.3.1 Setting Top Gear

To determine the maximum vehicle speed, the engine brake power curve is superimposed onto
the power requirement curve which can be plotted from the sum of both the rolling (R r) and air
(Ra) resistances covering the entire vehicle’s speed range. The total resistance R opposing
motion at any speed is given by:
 UNIT 3 AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSIONS

Introduction

It is difficult to achieve silent and smooth gear ratio changes with a conventional constant mesh
gear train. Automatic transmissions are designed to solve or minimize this problem by
employing sort of epicyclic gear arrangement, in which different gear ratios are selected by
application of multiple clutches and brakes.

Automatic transmissions are broadly of two types: the semi-automatic and fully-automatic
transmissions. The present day automatic transmissions consist of multiplate clutches, torque
converter and epicyclic gear box. In this unit, the epicyclic gear box and torque converter shall
be discussed in detail, as well as the principle of working of a typical automatic transmission.

Automatic transmissions operate basically by controlling vehicle speed and engine load.
Increasing vehicle speed needs changing gears upwards, whereas increasing engine load
necessitate change from higher to lower gears. In the modem automatic transmissions, the
complicated hydro-mechanical control systems have been replaced by electronic control system,
which get its input from hydraulic pressure sensors and governors. The electronic control
system gives better response and easier gear changes than the manual system.

Learning Objectives

After reading this unit you should be able to:

1. Understand basic terminologies of automatic transmissions

2. Calculate gear ratios of planetary gear train
3. Identify various components of automatic transmission

Unit content

Session 3-1: Fluid couplings and Torque converters

3-1.1 Fluid Couplings
 3-1.2 Torque Converters
3-1.3 Overrun Clutches

Session 3-2: Epicyclic Automatic Transmissions

3-2.1 Fundamentals of Planetary Gear Train
3-2.2 Planetary Gearbox
3-2.3 Basic Electronics and Hydraulic control Systems Session
3-4: Other Automatic Transmissions
3-4.1 Continuously variable Transmissions
3-4.2 Automated Manual Transmissions

SESSION 3-1: Fluid Couplings and Torque Converters

A fluid drive uses hydrokinetic energy as means of transferring power from the engine to the
transmission in such a way as to automatically match the speed of vehicle, load and
acceleration. There are two types of fluid drive:

(a) Two element type which takes up the drive smoothly without providing increased torque

(b) More than two element type which transfer power and magnifies the output torque in the
process.

3-1.1 Fluid Couplings

The fluid coupling, sometimes refer to as fluid flywheel, consists of two saucer-shaped discs, an
input impeller (pump) and an output turbine (runner), as illustrated in Figure 3-1. It is the same
as having two fans facing each other. If the one fan is powered, and blows enough air, the other
fan will move just from the force of the air. Imagine one fan being connected to the engine, and
the other fan connected to the transmission. In fluid coupling, instead of air there is light oil
flowing between the two fans, which are enclosed in housing, as shown in Figure 3-2.

The fluid coupling is located between the engine and transmission. The usual clutch for
disengaging the engine during shifting is mounted behind the fluid coupling. In normal driving
the driver leaves the transmission in high gear. When the vehicle stops, the driver does not have
to disengage the clutch because the fluid coupling slips. When pulling out the engine puts
enough torque through the coupling to move the vehicle. The coupling slips at all speeds and
reduces gas mileage. Its major advantage is that the vehicle can move or stop without using the
clutch.

Fluid coupling has very poor response, and results in low acceleration. A typical example was
Chrysler’s fluid drive, which was sometimes called “mashed potato drive” because of its very
poor response. Some of the early automatic transmissions also used fluid couplings. They were
very inefficient, and usually had poor acceleration because of the slippage. All modern
automatic transmissions use a torque converter instead.

Figure 3-1: Fluid Coupling Action

Figure 3-2: Fluid Coupling
3-1.2 Torque Converters

The torque converter is an improved version of the fluid coupling. The construction of a torque
converter is similar to that of the fluid flywheel, the only difference being that it has an
additional stationary member called the stator or the reaction member and all the members have
blades or vanes of specific shape. In addition, the torque converter uses the slippage to increase
the torque or twisting force put out by the engine. The torque converter keeps all the advantages
of the fluid coupling, in that it allows stopping without disengaging gears, and shifting without
using a clutch.

3-1.2.1 Construction
A three element torque converter coupling is comprised of an input impeller casing enclosed the
output turbine wheel. There are about 26 and 23 blades for the impeller and turbine elements
respectively. Both of these elements and their blades are fabricated from low carbon steel
pressings. The third element, called stator, is usually an aluminium alloy casting which may
have about 15 blades. Figures 3-3 and 3-4 show the assembly and action of a three-element
converter. As shown in Figure 3-3, the impeller or the driving member is connected to the
engine, and the turbine or the driven member is connected to the road wheels through the
transmission gears and the drive line. The stator is fixed to the frame through a free wheel. In
addition, there is a transmission oil pump which keeps the converter full of oil under pressure.
Pressure is necessary to keep the converter full of oil when rotating. Due to rotation the
centrifugal force pushes the oil in the outward direction and this tends to form air pockets near
the centre of the converter. This phenomenon of forming air pocket due to low pressure is called
cavitation. To avoid cavitation, the converter pressure is kept between 200 kPa to 1200 kPa.

3-1.2.2 Operation
When the engine is started, the impeller starts rotating. Initially, the oil from the impeller is
pushed into the turbine because of the higher centrifugal force at the impeller, due to it being
driven by the engine and the turbine being stationary. Thus the oil, having taken high kinetic
energy from the engine through the impeller, hits the outer edge of the turbine. This flow of the
high energy oil provides the force that tends to rotate the turbine. This force increases with the
increase of engine speed. When it is great enough, the turbine starts rotating and the vehicle
moves. The turbine blade angle is such that it changes the direction of the oil flow so that when
it comes out of the turbine at the centre, its direction is effectively backward. Without the stator,
the fluid will enter the impeller directly and push the impeller in the opposite direction, which
will result in a loss of power as in fluid coupling. To avoid this dragging action on the impeller,
the fluid from the turbine is made to strike the stator, which changes its direction suitably, so
that the oil leaving the stator strikes the impeller in the same direction in which the impeller is
turning

Then the impeller throws the oil back into the turbine at the outer edge. Thus, repeated pushing
of the turbine blades causes the torque on the turbine to increase, the phenomenon being called
torque multiplication. However, the action of the stator in deflecting the fluid in the favourable
direction and subsequent torque multiplication occurs when the turbine speed (proportional to
the vehicle speed) is less than the impeller speed (i.e. the engine speed). Thus, the maximum
torque multiplication occurs when the turbine is stationary and impeller is running as fast as the
engine speed. The maximum torque multiplication at stall is about 2.1 to 2.6.
 Figure 3-3: Three-Element Torque Converter

Figure 3-4: Three-Element Torque Converter Action

Figure 3-5 shows the variation of the ratio output torque/input torque and efficiency with the
speed of the driven member. It is observed that efficiency of the torque converter is maximum
within a very narrow speed range. Because of this the use of torque converter will involve heavy
losses. Two methods of avoiding this which have been employed are :
 (a) By so arranging that the torque converter behaves as a fluid flywheel at higher speeds.
This is achieved by mounting stator on a freewheel as described earlier.

(b) By disconnecting the torque converter at high speeds and instead employing a direct
drive. At low speeds, the torque converter is kept operative, because the car is run at low
speeds only for very small time.

3-1.2.3 Cooling
The oil passing through the torque converter can reach extremely high temperatures. It is,
therefore, necessary for the oil to pass through some type of cooler. Normally the torque coveter
and the gear box are cooled by pipe the oil through the radiator tank. The performance
characteristics of a fluid drive (both coupling and converter) are related to the following
terminologies:

Torque Ratio

Efficiency

Output Speed
Input Speed

Figure 3-5: Performance of a Torque converter

SESSION 3-2: Epicyclic Automatic Transmissions

3-2.1 Fundamentals of Planetary Gear Train

3-2.1.1 Introduction
Planetary (also called epicyclic) gear trains are often utilised to make more compact gear
reducer than an ordinary compound gear train. In addition, one major advantage of planetary
gear train is that it has two degrees of freedom or inputs, compared to ordinary gear train used
for manual gearbox which has one input.
A typical planetary gear train consists of a ring (also called annular or ring) gear, sun gear,
planet gears and arm, as shown in Figure 3-7. The arm carries the planet gears and rotates with
them. As the arm rotates, the planet gears engage both the ring gear and the sun gear. That is the
planet gears rotate about their centre, in addition to rotation with the arm (also called carrier)
about the centre of rotation of the arm. Therefore, the angular velocity of a planet gear is the
sum of the angular velocity of the arm plus its angular velocity about the arm.

Ring gear
Arm (or Carrier)
Sun gear

Planet gear

Figure 3-7: Typical Planetary Gear Set

3-2.1.2 Speed Ratio of Planetary Gear Train

Consider a planetary train shown in Figure 3-8. The sun gear 2 and arm 4 are the two inputs, but
the gear train has no ring gear. The angular velocity of planet gear 3 with respect to the the
carrier may be expressed as

w34 =w31 -w41 (1)

where ω41 = angular velocity of carrier 4 with respect to the ground, labelled as 1.
ω31 = angular velocity of gear 3 with respect to the ground
ω34 = angular velocity of gear 3 with respect to the carrier 4.
 2
3
4

1 N3
N2

Figure 3-8: Planetary Gear Train with Two Inputs

Planetary Gear Train with Two Planet Gears Meshing Separately with Sun
Gear and Ring Gears Example 3-1

3-2.2.1 Single Set

A simple planetary (epicyclic) gearbox with single set is shown in Figure 3-11. This is a
twoforward-speeds gear box. Direct gear is obtained by releasing the brake and engaging the

ws -wp = - N s - N p ws -wp Ł N p ws -wp = N s ws -

łŁ N r ł wp Ł N r ł
clutch. This locks the sun wheel and the planet carrier. Lower gear is obtained when brake is
applied which locks sun gear S. If, for example, number of teeth of the ring gear and sun wheel
are respectively, NR = 40 and Ns = 20, then

where ωr, ωs and ωp are the rotational speeds of ring gear, sun wheel and planet carrier
respectively. Ns = 0 when the brake is applied.

There are various design layouts of planetary gear train automatic transmissions with planetary
two or more planetary gear sets for various applications. However, gear ratios in all models are
obtained by applications of clutch and band brake set.

Figure 3-11: Speed Epicyclic gear box

3-2.2.2 Multi-Set Wilson Gearbox

This type of gear box consists of a number of simple epicyclic gear sets compounded together.
This gearbox has four forward and one reverse speed ratio epicyclic gearing set, as shown in
Figure 3-12. Shaft A is the input shaft connected directly to the engine crankshaft, while shaft R
is the output shaft coupled with the propeller shaft through universal joints. Label C is the multi
plate clutch and there are four planetary gear trains 1, 2, 3 and 4, interconnected as shown.:
Various gear ratios are obtained by as follows.

Direct Gear
This is obtained by locking S 1 to A by applying the clutch C. In this position direct gear is
obtained.

Third Gear
S1 is held stationary by means of brake B 1. In this position, arm A 1 is coupled to ring R 2 and arm
A2 is coupled to ring R1.
Second Gear

Brake B2 is applied to keep the ring R 2 stationary. The sun gear S2 is already fixed to the engine
shaft A, and arm A2 is also coupled to the ring R1.

Figure 3-12: Planetary Gear Train for Wilson Gearbox

First Gear

Brake B3 is applied to obtain the low gear.

Reverse Gear

Brake B4 is applied which holds the ring R4 stationary.

internally tooth outer annular ring gear, a central externally toothed sun gear and a planet carrier
which supports three intermediate externally tooth planet gears. The planet gears are spaced
evenly between and around the outer ring gear and the central sun gear.

The input to the planetary gear train is through a torque converter which has a lock-up clutch.
Different parts of the gear train can be engaged or released by the application of three multiplate
clutches, two band brakes and one first gear, one way roller clutch (Refer to Section 3-1.4). A
list of key components and abbreviations is listed in Table 3-2. Similar gear trains are adopted
by ZF, Mercedes-Benz and Nissan Transmissions. The brake and clutch engagement sequence
for various drives is shown in Table 3-3

3-2.4 Overdrives

3-2.4.1 Applications

Overdrive is a device use for stepping the gear ratio in the car. It is fitted in between
transmission and the propeller shaft. It enables a high cruising speed to be attained with a
comparatively low engine speed (upto about 20-25% less) on long journeys. This results in less
wear of the engine parts and decreases vibration and noise. As the friction losses at lower speeds
are less, there is a saving of fuel also with the overdrive.

Overdrive is generally fitted on top gear only, but in some sports cars, overdrives are also fitted
on gears other than the top gear which increases the torque ratios available. The overdrive may
be operated either manually or automatically at a predetermined speed.

3-2.4.2 Construction and Operation

To understand the working of an overdrive, consider Figure 3-15. It consists of an epicyclic gear
train in which the sun gear is free to rotate on the input shaft, while the carrier can move on
splines on the input shaft. A freewheel clutch is also fitted on the input shaft splines. The output
shaft is connected to the ring.

When the sun gear is locked with the casing, i.e., it becomes stationary, the speed of the output
shaft is increased i.e., overdrive is engaged. When, however, the sun gear is locked to the carrier
or to the ring, solid drive through' the gear train is obtained. Thus depending on the locking of
the sun gear with casing or with carrier, the overdrive or the normal direct drive is obtained.
There is another possible control of the mechanism i.e., when the sun wheel is kept free to rotate
on the input shaft. In this case, there is direct drive through the freewheel clutch when the
engine develops power. However, when the accelerator pedal is brought to zero position and the
engine is simply idling, the output shaft will tend to override the. input shaft. The rollers of the
freewheel clutch in this case no longer remain wedged and the car free wheels Thus for gear
changing one simply has to lift his-foot off the accelerator pedal; the clutch need not be
operated.

Figure 3-16 shows an assembly of overdrive.

(b) Figure 3-15: Schematic of Overdrives
-2.2.3 Four Speed and reverse Longitudinally Mounted with Mechanical Power Flow
The planetary gear train is comprised of three planetary gear sets, an overdrive gear set, a
forward gear set and a reverse gear set, as shown in Figure 3-13. Each gear set consists of an

Figure 3-13: Longitudinally mounted Four Speed Automatic Transmissions Layout

SESSION 3-3: Other Automatic Transmissions

3-3.1 Continuously variable Transmission

Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) also called Stepless speed ratio, is an automatic
transmission that can select any desired drive ratio within its operating range. Unlike a
conventional four or five-speed transmission, CVT is has infinite speed ratio within its operating
range.

Though CVT was introduced in 1958 by DAF in Netherlands for cars, it has been improved
tremendously over the years. Initially its use was limited to small cars, yet the numerous
advantages which a modern CVT offers, have made it quite popular in the modern cars. Honda
Multimatic, Toyota Insight (hybrid car) and Audi Multitronic models are all fitted with CVT.

3-3.1.1 Construction
The transmission consists basically of a pair of variable width vee-shaped pulleys which are
interconnected by a composite steel belt. Each pulley consists of two shallow 20 o half cones
facing each other and mounted on a shaft, one being rigidly attached to it whereas the other half
is free to slide axially on linear ball splines, as shown in Figure 3-18. The driving pulley is
connected to the engine crankshaft, while the driven pulley transfers motion to the drive shaft.
Figure 3-19 shows a sectional view of a CVT. Modern CVT uses metal belts that are specially
constructed for the required flexibility, as shown in Figure 3-20.

Belt

Sliding Half Fixed Half Pulley

Pulley

Figure 3-18: Variator Pulley

3-3.1.2 Operation
When the two cones of the pulley are close together, the belt rides higher in the groove and the
pulley diameter apparently increases. When the two cones of the pulley are far apart, the belt
rides lower in the groove, making the effective diameter decrease. The two cones are moved
closer or far apart using hydraulic pressure, centrifugal force or spring tension (all through
electronic control). Moreover, when diameter of driving pulley increases, the diameter of the
driven pulley decreases, and vice versa. This is done to keep the belt always tight.

As the two pulleys change their diameter relative to each other, infinite number of gear ratios is
obtained.
 Figure 3-19: Section View of Transverse Continuously Variable
Transmission

Figure 3-20: Belt for CVT

3-3.1.3 Advantages
1. Constant stepless acceleration from start to high speed, eliminating 'shift shock' to provide a
smoother ride. In fact the operation is 'much smoother than even conventional hydraulic
automatic transmission.

2. It keeps the car in optimum power range under all conditions, thus decreasing fuel
consumption. Besides, it gives better fuel economy than hydraulic transmission by avoiding
torque converter slippage.

3. Responds better to changing conditions, e.g. throttle and speed changes, which eliminate
gear hunting while moving up an incline.

4. Less emissions due to better engine control under all conditions.

3-3.1.4 Disadvantages
1. Torque handling capability of a CVT is limited by the strength of the belt or chain inside it,
limiting its use in small cars. Audi's Multitronic is limited to 300 Nm of torque. Perhaps the
biggest vehicle with a CVT is the Nissan Murano, which is a four- wheel drive vehicle with
a V-6 engine. At the present technology level, CVTs can handle maximum torque of 350
Nm only.

2. CVTs have not been used successfully for series production standard drivelines due to
packaging. A CVT needs a relatively large centre distance which cannot be provided in an
inline configuration, e.g., with longitudinal engines in rear wheel drive vehicles. However,
CVTs have been successfully employed in small and medium size vehicles with front
transverse drivelines.
3. The life of a CVT automatic in light duty use has been found to be about the same as that of
conventional automatic transmission. However, when the vehicle is subjected to heavy
stopand-go driving, as in case of delivery vehicles, CVT is found to have much shorter life
than conventional automatic transmission.

3-3.1.5 Miscellaneous
In actual CVTs special provisions, such as the following, have to be made:

1. A simple CVT as described above, does not have a neutral position, which is provided by
some form of clutch arrangement.

2. Some means of reversing the car is also required. The easiest method is to use a single
epicyclic gear train, which would reverse the output from the variator pulley.

3-3.1.6 Toroidal CVT

This transmission consists of two sets of planetary type steerable rollers between two toroidal
shaped discs, one driving and the other driven. By tilting the steerable rollers, the relative
diameters of the input and the output discs can be varied to get a desired speed ratio. Torque is
transferred at the point of contact between the rollers and the discs under a high shear stiffness
traction fluid under very high pressures which causes the fluid to become glassy, exhibiting
elasto-hydrodynamic behaviour which prevents metal-to metal contact between the rollers and
discs.

Toroidal CVTs can transmit very high torques at high efficiencies, averaging 91.6%. These have
been used in Nissan Cedric and Gloria cars having 3.0-litre engines and are suitable for LTVs
and SUVs However, due to their larger mass and higher manufacturing cost, same have not
found wide acceptance.

UNIT 4 DRIVE LINE

Introduction
The drive line is the part transmission that in transfers power from the gearbox to the road
wheels. It may include propeller shaft, transfer case, universal joints and differential. This unit
covers the drive line.
 Learning Objectives

After reading this unit you should be able to:

1. Design the drive line layout for both two- and four-wheel drive
vehicles
2. Identify various components of a vehicle drive line
3. Understand the working principles of components of drive

Unit content

Session 4-1: Propeller Shaft Assembly

4-1.1 general Aspects
4-1.2 Propeller Shaft
4-1.3 Joints
Session 4-2: Final Drive Transmission
4-2.1 Differential
4-2.2 Rear Drive Axle
4-2.3 Half Shafts
4-2.4 Four Wheel Drive Arrangements

SESSION 4-1: Propeller Shaft Assembly

4-1.1 General Aspects

4-1.1.1 Functions
The propeller shaft is a driving shaft that connects the transmission main or output shaft of the
gear box to the differential of the rear axle. It transmits power from the transmission to the bevel
pinion or worm of final drive in front engine, rear drive vehicles and from the transfer box to the
front and rear axles in all-wheel drive vehicle (fitted on both the ends of the shaft).
The propeller shaft, as the name suggests, propels the vehicle. It is also sometimes called the
drive shaft. It performs the following two functions:
(i) To receive the power from the gear box output shaft and without any change in speed
transmit it to the input pinion of the differential for onward transmission to the rear axle and rear
wheels.
(ii) To cope with the difference in line with the level of the gear box output shaft and the
differential input pinion shaft. .
4-1.1.2 Requirements
The propeller shaft has to operate at varied lengths and varied angles. The engine of the
automobile is somewhat rigidly attached to the frame by springs. As the vehicle moves on the
road, there are jerks and bumps due to which the springs expand and contract. This changes the
angle of drive between the propeller shaft and the transmission shaft. The distance between the
gear box and differential also changes due to the movement of the springs.
The propeller shaft must accommodate has to meet both of the angular change coming between
the gear box and differential and the change in length of the distance between the gear box and
differential The propeller shaft is also not on the same line as the gear box output shaft but it
runs to the rear axle at an angle because the level of the rear axle is lower than the gear box. The
general requirements of the propeller shaft are:
(a) To accommodate transverse angular motions, universal joints are provided.
(b) To adjust for the change in length of the propeller shaft, a slip joint (spline) is
provided.
(c) The propeller shaft should be able to withstand the torsional stresses and twisting due
to the transmission of torque
(d) The propeller shaft should be able to withstand both torsional and transverse linear
vibrations and whip.
(e) It must be light and well balanced so that vibrations and whip will not occur at high
speeds. For these reasons, it is made of a strong steel (alloy) tube. Solid propeller
shafts are also used.

(f) The propeller shaft should be able protected against the atmosphere or protected by
an outer tube.

4-1.2 Propeller Shaft

The propeller shafts are subjected to driving and braking torques. When a front engine rear drive
car starts from rest or is suddenly braked to slow down, the shock to the transmission is
cushioned by the long propeller shaft which twists slightly and then untwists.: Figure 4-1 shows
a propeller shaft with tow universal joints at it ends and sliding joint, which are the main parts of
a propeller shaft.
Shaft
As the shaft has to withstand mainly torsional loads, it is usually made of tubular cross-section.
It is designed against torsional stress, twisting and linear and torsional vibrations. It has to be
well balanced to avoid whirling at high speeds, which can induce additional transverse bending.
Shafts are made of steel, aluminium or composite materials.

Universal Joint

One or two universal joints may be used. The universal joints accommodate the differential up
and down movements of the ends of the propeller shaft. Modem vehicles use cardan joints or
high-speed constant velocity joints, double cardan joints or rubber couplings with options for
intermediate bearings, limited slip devices and crash features that absorb energy.

Slip joint

Depending upon the type of drive, one slip joint may be there in shaft. This serves to adjust the
length of the propeller shaft when demanded by the rear axle movements.

4-1.2.2 Detail of Propeller Shaft

Fig. 4-1 shows a propeller shaft, with two universal joints at the ends and a slip or sliding joint.
Slip

Universal Joint Sliding Joint Propeller Shaft

Figure 4-1: Propeller Shaft

In some designs, slip arrangement is slightly different. In these a universal joint and splined slip
yoke are located at the transmission end of the shaft where these are held in alignment by a
bushing in the transmission rear extension. This spline is lubricated internally by transmission
lubrication or grease. One such design is shown in Figure 4-2. Sometimes a rubber element is
incorporated between the two sliding tubes to make the relative movement smooth, noiseless
and reduce wear, as shown in Figure 4-3.
 Figure 4-2 . Propeller Shaft with Solid Tube

Figure 4-3: Propeller Shaft with Rubber Element In The Tube

In vehicles with large wheel base, the long propeller shaft would tend to sag and whirl. Whirl is
like the action of a rope that is in an arc while held at both ends. At a certain speed the whirling
becomes critical and the shaft vibrates violently. This also sets up sympathetic resonant
vibrations in the vehicle body. Critical whirling speed of shafts can be increased by increasing
its diameter, but that would increase its inertia which would decrease its acceleration and
deceleration. Critical whirling speed is also found to decrease as the square of its length. Thus
decreasing the length to half would increase the critical speed four times. In some designs this
has been achieved by extending the rear end of the transmission main shaft and housing while in
others, by extending the final drive pinion shaft and housing.

Another method to decrease the shaft length is to use divided propeller shaft, supported by
intermediate bearings. Other advantages of such arrangement are the lower floor height and
possibility of achieving large offsets between transmission centre line and the final-drive pinion
centre line in commercial vehicles in two or more stages. An example of a two-piece propeller
shaft shown in Figure 4-4.. It consists of two propeller shafts supported in the middle by a
selfaligning ball bearing fitted in a cross member of chassis frame. In all there are 3 universal
joints and 2 slip joints. At the end there are flange yokes which are fitted to the gear box shaft
and the rear axle pinion shafts.
 Figure 4-4: Two-Piece Propeller Shaft

Final Drive Transmission

The final drive is the last stage in transferring power from the engine to the road wheels. It
provides a fixed reduction between the drive shaft and the driving axles. Figure 4-11 shows a
simplified diagram of the final drive system.

Figure 4-5: Final Drive System

4-2.1 Differential

Differential is the mechanism by means of which outer wheel runs faster than the inner wheel
while taking a turn or moving over upheaval road. Differential is a part of the inner axle housing
assembly, which includes the differential, rear axles, wheels and bearings. The differential
consists of a system of gears arranged in such a way that connects the propeller shaft with the
rear axles.

The purpose of the differential is to provide the relative movement to the two rear wheels when
the car is taking a turn. The torque transmitted to each wheel is, however, always equal.

Differentials are used in rear drive axle of front-engine, rear-wheel drive vehicles. Differentials
are also used in the transaxles on front-engine, front-wheel drive wheels. Also, four-wheel drive
vehicles have differential at both the front and rear wheels. In addition, some four-wheel drive
vehicles have a third differential in the transfer case.

4-2.1.1 Construction of Differential

Figure 4-12 shows a simplified diagram of a typical differential, which shows various parts of a
differential unit. The bevel pinion is fixed to the propeller shaft which rotates the crown wheel.
The crown-wheel has another unit called the differential unit. It consists of two bevel gears (sun
gears) and two bevel pinions (planet gears). The bevel gears are in contact with the half shafts of
the rear axle. Differentials are either the bevel gear type or worm and wheel type. Figure 4-13
shows three-dimensional drawings of gear type, and worm and wheel type.

Propeller Shaft

Bevel Pinion Gear

Crown Wheel
Sun (Bevel) Gear

Half Shaft

Planet (Bevel) Gear

Differential cage
Figure 4-12: Simplified Differential Diagram

(a) Gear Type of Differential

(b) Worm and Wheel Type of Differential

 Figure 4-13: Types of Differential
The gear type gears may either be either straight bevel gears or spiral bevel gears. The spiral
bevel gears are silent running and stronger than straight bevel gears because of greater contact
of the teeth. Spiral bevel gears, and worm and wheel are normally used for differentials.

4-2.1.2 Differential Action When Moving Straight Ahead

When the vehicle is moving straight ahead power is transferred from the propeller shaft to the
bevel pinion and crown wheel. The crown wheel and differential cage therefore revolve as one
unit. Power is divided between the left and right worm wheel by way of the spur pin gear pins
which are attached to the differential cage. The power then flows to the pair of meshing worm
gears, where it finally passes to each splined half shaft. Note that there is no relative rotary
motion between the half shafts and the differential cage.

4-2.1.3 Differential Action When Cornering

When cornering, the outside wheel of the driven axle will tend to rotate faster than the inside
wheel due to its turning circle radius being larger than that of the inside wheel. It follows that
outside wheel will have to rotate relatively faster than the differential cage, and conversely the
inside wheel has to reduce its speed in the same proportion.

When there is a difference in speed between the two half shafts, the faster turning half shaft via
the splined worm gears drives its worm wheels about their axes (pins) in one direction of
rotation. The corresponding slower turning half shaft on the other side drives its worm wheels
about their axes (pins) in the opposite direction but at the same speed.

Since the worm wheels on opposite sides will be revolving at the same speed but in opposite
sense while the vehicle is cornering they can be simply interlinked by pairs of meshing spurs
gears without interfering with the independent road speed requirements for both inner and outer
driving road wheels.

4-2.1.4 Differential Torque Distribution

When one wheel loses traction and attempts to spin, it transmits drive from its set of worm gears
to the worm wheels. The drive is then transferred from the worm wheels on the spinning side to
the opposite (good traction wheel) side worm wheels by way of the bridging spur gears. At this
point the engaging teeth of the worm wheel with the corresponding worm gear teeth jam. Thus
the wheel that has lost its traction locks up the gear mechanism on the other side every time
there is a tendency for it to spin. As a result of low traction wheel being prevented from
spinning, the transmission of the torque from the propeller shaft will be weighted more on the
which with traction.

4-2.2 Types of Differential s

Differential is of the following types:

 (a) Conventional type

(b) Power-lock or Non-slip type

(c) Double reduction type

4-2.2.1 Conventional
This type of differential has been discussed above. The conventional differential delivers the
same amount of torque to each wheel on the drive axle. If one wheel slips on a slippery road,
mud or ice, the wheel becomes stationary, all the power being flowing to the slipping wheel.
This results in no movement to the vehicle.

4-2.2.2 Power-lock or Non-Slip

In order to overcome this drawback of the conventional type, the vehicles are now provided with
a non-slip or self-locking differential. Non-slip differential is very much similar in construction
to conventional type except that it has two sets of clutch plates in addition. Furthermore, the
ends of pinion shafts lay loosely in notches, in two halves of the differential cage.

Straight head drive

The rotating differential cage carries the sun gear shafts around with it. Since there is a
considerable side thrust, the axle shafts in sun gears tend to slide up the sides of the notches in
the two halves of the differential cage. As they slide up, they are forced outward and this force
is transmitted to the clutch plates. Clutch plates thus lock the sun gears and the axle shafts to the
differential cage. In this case, if one wheel encounters a muddy or slippery surface, which
causes it to lose traction temporarily avoiding it from slipping or spinning as the half shaft is
locked with differential cage by means of clutch plates.

Cornering
While taking a turn, the non-slip differential functions in the conventional way to tend the outer
wheel to run faster than the inner wheel and thus to cover more distance within the same time
period. This action is permitted by the slipping of clutch plates.

4-2.2.3 Double reduction type

This type of differential provides one additional gear reduction between the engine and the
driving wheels. Here the drive pinion meshes with a ring gear mounted on a straight shaft which
contains a reduction gear drive set. The reduction-gear set drives a driven gear set attached to
the differential cage. The driven gear set contains more number of gear teeth as compared to
reduction drive gear set. Gear reduction is thus obtained between the drive pinion and ring gear
and also between the two-reduction gear sets.

The double reduction differential is normally employed in heavy duty vehicles which require
higher gear ratio between the engine and the driving wheels.
4-2.3 Rear Drive Axles

A rear axle lies in between the differential and the driving wheels and transmits power from the
differential to the driving wheels. It consists of two half shafts which are connected to the rear
axle differential. The inner end of each half shaft is connected to the sun gear of the differential,
and the outer end to the driving wheel.

The rear axles perform the following two functions:

(a) Carry the weight of the vehicle

(b) Transmit both rotational motion and torque the power from the rear differential to the
wheels.

4-2.3.1 Construction
In rear wheel drive vehicles, the rear wheels are the driving wheels, whereas in front wheel drive
vehicles, the front wheels are the driving wheels. Almost all rear axles on modem passenger cars
are live axles, i.e. they transfer torque and rotational motion to the wheels. Dead axles simply
remain stationary, do not move the wheels. Figure shows a typical cut away differential and rear
axle.

The rear axles and the differential are completely enclosed by a housing, which protects them
from water, dust and damage, in addition to providing base for mounting their inner bearings
and a container for the lubricant.

(a) Depending upon the arrangement of the bearings the rear axle or the axle casing must
support: The total rear weight of the vehicle, causing both bending and shearing action.

(b) Side thrust on the wheels when cornering, which imposes bending load and an end thrust or
a pull.

(c) Driving torque

Live axle (technically called shaft) transfers torque and rotational motion.

Dead axles simply remain stationary, but support rotational of wheel

 Figure 4-14: Typical Cut Away Differential and Rear Axle

4-2.3.2 Types of Rear Axles

The rear drive axle differs from front drive axle in that it contains no joints at its outer ends. Its
housing is either banjo type or split type. In the banjo axle, the axle is a single unit and final
drive assembly is carried in a separate casing which is bolted to the axle housing. The banjo
construction is often used for axle cases of the smaller and lighter vehicles. In the split type axle
arrangement a central housing contains the final drive and it is fitted with a tube on each side to
carry the half axles and bearings. Depending upon the methods of supporting the rear axles and
mounting the rear wheels, the axles are of following three types, which are shown in Figure 4-
15.

(a) Half floating rear axle.

(b) Three-quarter floating rear axle.

(c) Fully floating rear axle.

Half Floating Rear Axle

A half floating rear axle is shown in Figure 4-15(a). The bearings supporting the half shafts
(labeled as axle) are inside the axle casing. The axle of the wheel is at the centre of the axle
casing. The wheels are fitted at the two ends of the axle by means of a key, bolt and nut.

With this type of axle, the whole weight of the vehicle is first transmitted to the suspension
spring then to the axle case, rear axle, wheel and finally to the ground.
Three-Quarter Floating Rear Axle
Figure 4-15(b) shows a three-quarter floating rear axle. The axle is fitted inside the axle casing.
The bearings are on the outer side between the wheel and the axle casing. The wheel is fitted
with the axle by means of a key, bolt and nut.

The weight of the vehicle is supported partly by the axle case and partly by the axle. The axle
only takes care of the rotation and transmission of power. Power is transmitted from the engine
to the wheel.

The main advantage of this type of axle over the half-floating axle is that the major part of the
load is taken by the axle casing and not by the axle.

(a) Half Floating Rear Axle. (b) Three-Quarter Floating Rear Axle (c) Fully Floating Rear Axle

Figure 4-15: Types of Rear Drive Axles

Fully-Floating Rear Axle

Figure 4-15 shows the various parts of a fully-floating rear axle with flange. The bearings are
between the wheel and axle case. The axle is mounted inside the axle case. One end of axle is
fitted with the wheel by means of a flange, bolt and nut. The entire weight of the vehicle is
supported by the wheel and axle case. The axle is relieved of all strain caused by the weight of
the vehicle on end thrust. It transmits only the driving torque; thus it is called full-floating.

This type of axle is very strong and is normally used for heavy duty vehicles. If an axle shaft
breaks, there would be no danger of the wheel coming off and the shaft can be removed and
replaced easily. But this is the most expensive type of drive.
 PROPELLER SHAFT AND DRIVE ARRANGEMENT

The open shaft (Hotchkiss) drive

In this design a semi-elliptic leaf spring is fitted under each chassis side frame at the rear end.
The forward end of each spring is shackled directly to the chassis while the rear end is secured
by means of a swinging shackle. Rubber type bushes are usually fitted into the spring eyes and
hanger brackets. The axle may be mounted above or below the springs, and it is prevented from
moving sideways and from front to rear by the enlarged heads of the spring centre bolts. These
are fitted into recesses in the axle bed-plates. The axle is secured to the springs by high – tensile
steel U-bolts or clamp bolts and plates. In most modern designs rubber pads are fitted between
the springs and the axle to reduce the noise and vibration transmitted from the axle into the
chassis and body.

DRAW.

Forces acting

In all rear suspension designs the following forces are acting on the rear axle and these forces
must be controlled or limited in their action by the arrangement of the suspension.

1. Driving thrust. When driving torque is applied to the road wheels, it acts at the point of
contact between the tyre and the road to produce the driving thrust or tractive effort. The axle is
moved forward and this movement, or thrust forces, must be transferred to the chassis.

2. Braking thrust. When the brakes are applied the movement of the rear axle is retarded. This
action must also be transferred to the chassis.

The driving and the braking thrust act through the same components but in opposite directions
to each other.

3. Torque reaction. When driving torque is applied to the road wheels they resist the torque.
This produces an opposing or reaction force of equal size on the axle case. This forces the
pinion nose upward (i.e. twist the axle) and this movement must be limited either by the springs
of the suspension system or by means of radius rods or torque arms.
 4. Braking reaction. When the brakes are applied the wheel is retarded and the reaction force,
acting through the brake back-plate, twists the axle and forces the pinion nose to move down.
This twisting of the axle must also be limited.

The torque and braking reaction forces act through the same components but in opposite
directions.

DRAW

The torque tube drive (enclosed)

A single semi-elliptical leaf spring is fitted across the chassis, being located in a chassis cross-
member by its centre bolt and secured by high-tensile steel U-bolts. As the spring is fitted both
transversely and inverted, the axle ends are secured to the spring ends. Two swinging arm
shackles are fitted, and special rubber are bonded to the shackle pins so that the movement of
the shackle is limited. The ends of the axle and spring are prevented from moving forward and
backward by a vee shaped radius rod which also prevents the end of the spring and axle from
turning about the spring centre.

The lower end of the propeller shaft is secured to the pinion shaft by a splined sleeve which is
riveted to each shaft. The upper end of the propeller shaft is fitted into a sliding joint attached to
a universal joint arranged so that the centre of the joint coinside with the the centre of the
cupped end of the tubular torque member.

As the axle and spring are deflected by the road wheels, they and the torque tube swing in an
arc having as its centre. The centre of the single universal joint. A second joint is not required
as the end of the pinion shaft is always in exact alignment with the end of the propeller shaft.

The radius rod is connected between the ends of the axle and a point along the length of the
tubular torque member.
THE FLUID FLYWHEEL

The fluid flywheel, or fluid coupling, is a form of clutch in which crankshaft torque is transmitted to
the input shaft of the gearbox through the effect of centrifugal force upon a low- viscosity oil. The
percentage of torque transmitted by the coupling depends upon the speed of the engine, i.e, the
operation of the unit is controlled by the accelerator pedal.

Construction (fig)

The fluid flywheel consists of two torus- shaped members which have flat and radially arranged
vanes. The flywheel is deeply recessed and the driving member is bolted to it to form an oil- tight
chamber. The second and driven member is arranged inside the chamber, with its vanes opposing
those of the driving member, and is bolted to the output shaft. The shaft is supported and located by
opposed ball thrust bearings and passes through the driving member. A special design of adjustable
or spring- loaded oil seal is fitted over the shaft at this point. The two members must never touch
and are normally about 3mm apart. The complete assembly is carefully balanced and the outer face
of the driving member carries two screwed filler plugs. The oil level is determined by the upper plug
when the two are arranged vertically. In order to reduce oil turbulence and heat losses the driven
member may have fewer vanes than the driving member, and an oil director ring may be
incorporated. In some design this director ring may be replaced by a baffle ring fitted at the centre of
the driven member. This reduces its drag at very low engine speed and so changes the slip
characteristics slightly.

FIG.

Operation

Idling speeds. At engine idling speed (500-600rev/min) the oil between the vanes of the driving
member is forced outward from the centre by centrifugal force. The shape of the member directs
the oil on to the outer parts of the vanes of the driven member – from which it is then directed
back on to the inner parts of the driving vanes. A slow circulation of oil is therefore established
between the two members and as the oil passes into the driven member. The oilpath resembles a
coil spring formed into a circle. Centrifugal force is relatively low at idling speeds, and the
velocity and kinetic energy of the oil correspondingly low. The rotation of the driven member is
opposed by resistance or drag of the transmission, the weight of the vehicle, and possibly the
brakes if applied. At these engine speeds the kinetic given upby the oil is insufficient to
overcome this resistance and the driven member remains stationary. No torque is transmitted to
the gearbox andis 100%.
Running speeds. As the speed of the engine is increased the centrifugal force acting upon the oil
in the driven member is also increased. The oil therefore passes from the driving member with
much greater velocity, and gives up much more kinetic energy at the driven member. The
increased energy of the driven member enables it to rotate against its resistance and it begins to
transmit torque to the gearbox. At engine speeds of between 600 and 1000 rev/min the slip
between the two members is reduced to 100% to about 15% and, as the engine speed is further
increased, the slip is reduced to between 15 and 2% i.e. the efficiency of the fluid flywheel at
normal running speeds is about 98%. This high level of efficiency, combined with the very rapid
and smooth reduction in slip (increase in torque transmission) is the main characteristics of the
unit. It also reduces the shock of the drive take-up and provides a much smoother or more
regular torque at the transmission units. As the load on the driven member always results in it
rotating at speeds less than those of the driving member always – even at maximum speed- the
circulation of the oil between the two members is always maintained. The transfer of kinetic
energy is therefore always maintained and the torque is transmitted to the gearbox.

NOTE

(1) According to engine speed, the fluid flywheel will transmit from 0% to 98% of torque
available at the crankshaft. It cannot increase the available torque under any circumstances.

(2) In spite of 100% slip at low speeds there is always some drag on the driven member. An
epicyclic gearbox must therefore be used in conjunction with this coupling instead of a sliding
dog or synchromesh gearbox.

(3) The oil used in the unit must be non- corrosive and anti- oxidant. It must be of low viscosity
and high density. The use of an oil of high viscosity will increase the slip and reduce the
efficiency.

THE HYDRAULIC TORQUE CONVERTER

The gearbox is a mechanical torque converter, i.e. it changes the torque provided by the
crankshaft by producing a change in its output shaft speed. The hydraulic torque converter does
exactly the same job but with two very important differences. The torque changes resulting from
the use of a gearbox progress in steps as each ratio is selected, the smoothness of the changes
depending upon the skill of the driver. The accuracy with which the torque supplied matches
that required also depends upon the skill of the driver. The hydraulic torque converter is capable
of such infinite number of combinations of speed and torque that it can match accurately, and
automatically, every slight variation of the load imposed upon the engine.

Construction (fig0

The converter is similar in construction to the fluid flywheel but the differences are important.
The operation difference is that the converter can multiply the torque provided by the crankshaft
while the fluid flywheel cannot.
The converter consist of driving and driven members, and a reaction member or a stator, One,
two, or three stators may be employed. The driving member is called pump or impeller and the
driven member is known as turbine. The impeller and the turbine faces each other and the stator
is arranged between them.

Impeller. The is toroidal in shape and is mounted on the flywheel. The vanes are radially
arranged and of aerofoil cross –section. They are also curved so that when centrifugal force
causes oil to flow

Draw

along the vanes the oil is expelled with much greater velocity than is possible with the flat vanes
of the fluid flywheel.

Turbine. This also is toroidal in shape with radially disposed vanes of aerofoil cross section.
This vanes are less in number than those of the impeller- to reduce oil turbulence- and their
curvature is arranged to first lead in the direction of rotation and then to lead in the opposite
direction as they near the centre of the turbine. The turbine is secured to the gearbox input shaft
and it is supported by opposed thrust bearings. It is completely independent of the flywheel and
the impeller and is driven by the oil ejected from the impeller.

STATOR: The stator is fitted into the oil path between the turbine and the impeller but
mechanically, it is independent of both. It consist of a set of vanes which are so curved that the
oil leaving the turbine is redirected into the impeller in the direction of impeller rotation, that is
the returning oil helps the rotation of the impeller instead of opposing it. The stator is mounted
upon a unidirectional clutch or free wheel which is itself mounted upon a fix tubular member.
This clutch enables the stator to follow the impeller under certain conditions but never to move
in the opposite direction.

Fig

Operation

Hevy – load condition. Under these conditions, i.e. starting from rest, hill climbing or
accelerating, the turbine is very heavily loaded and a torque higher than that of the crankshaft is
required to cause it to rotate. The oil, due to centrifugal force and the curvature of the impeller
vanes, is thrown out of the impeller at high speed. As it strikes the vanes of the stationary or
slower-moving turbine its velocity is reduced and most of its kinetic energy is given to the
turbine – causing it to rotate because a torque is being applied to it. As the oil then passes along
the turbine vanes it is accelerated again by their curvature, its velocity and kinetic energy are
increased, and it is directed into the stator vanes in a direction opposite from that of the rotation
of the impeller. The angle at which this returning oil strikes the stator vanes is such that the
stator tries to rotate in the same direction.
Draw.

This rotation is prevented by locking action of the unidirectional clutch, and the oil is therefore
redirected by these fixed vanes into the impeller in the direction of impeller rotation. A further
increase in velocity and kinetic energy occurs as the oil passes along the stator vanes and this
energy is added to that imparted by the impeller vanes. The oil then leaves the impeller at even
greater velocity and gives even more kinetic energy to the turbine. i.e. the turbine is rotated by a
greater torque. The torque applied depends upon the relative speeds of rotation of the impeller
and the turbine and torque supplied is matched very accurately, and automatically, to the torque
required to overcome the load against which the engine is working. In a three – element or
single –stage converter there are three transfers of energy. Where more than one set of stator
vanes are employed, more energy transfers occur. The torque multiplication of the converters
used in automatic transmissions for cars is usually about 2.5, that is the converter multiplies the
crankshaft torque by 2.5 when the turbine is held stationary. In other types of converter, the
torque multiplication may be as high as 6.5:1 .

Light- load condition. As the speed of the vehicle is increased, and the load on the turbine is
reduced, the speed of the turbine increase progressively until it almost matches speed with the
impeller. During the period of turbine acceleration the angle at which the oil leaving the
impeller strikes the turbine vane is altering, and less energy is given to the turbine, i.e. the
turque acting upon the turbine is reducing. At the same time the oil leaving the turbine is
striking the stator vanes at less acute angles, and the stator is therefore no longer locked by the
unidirectional clutch. It now begin to rotate with the impeller and turbine.

Draw

Under this condition the rotation of the stator provides a smooth return flow of oil from the
turbine to the impeller, and torque multiplication ceases as the returning oil has little or no
energy to add to the impeller. The smooth return action helps to reduce the very high energy
losses due to turbulence and the production of heat. Under light load conditions about 90% of
the available torque is transmitted when the load on the turbine is increased its speed is reduced
and the direction of the returning oil is such that the stator is forced back and held stationary by
the unidirectional clutch. Torque multiplication automatically occurs to suit the increased load-
and continue until the stator is once again free to run the impeller and turbine.