Incompressible Flow over Finite Wings

1
 Incompressible Flow over Finite Wings
Introduction finite wings, downwash, induced drag
Vortex Theory principle: the vortex filament
Biot-Savart law
Helmholtz’s vortex theorems
The Classical Lifting-Line Theory
elliptical and general lift distribution
the effect of Aspect Ratio

2
 The flow over finite wings
In what respect is the flow around a true wing different
from an airfoil (an ‘infinite’ wing)?

Airfoil : 2D flow (cl , cd)

Real Wing: 3D flow (CL , CD)

(1) finite extent
(2) variation of sections
along the wing span

• spanwise flow component

due to ‘leakage’ flow
around the tips

3
 Trailing vortices and downwash
Results:
trailing vortices (tip
vortices)
and downwash downwash
(vertical flow component)
tip vortex

4
 Downwash and the effective flow direction

1. The downwash modifies the effective flow direction and reduces

:
‘effective angle of attack’
eff
   
i

 - geometric angle of attack

i - induced angle of attack

2. The lift vector is D 'i  L 'i

inclined backwards:
‘induced drag’

Note: total drag =

induced drag + profile drag
flight direction

5
 Distribution of lift (1)
b /2

L = total lift of the wing

L  C L q S   L ' dy
b / 2
L’ = ‘sectional lift’, local lift per unit span
L '  cl q  c   V  
Along the wing span variation of:
• chord c
c l  c l (  eff )
• airfoil properties (‘aerodynamic twist’)
• geometric  (‘geometric twist’)  a 0 [    i   L 0 ]
• induced 

Hence, also variation of:

• lift coefficient
• sectional lift L’
• circulation 
Note: L' ~  ~ cl c

6
 Distribution of lift (2)

Note: Lift is zero at the tips

(pressure equalization)

Central subject of wing theory:

Relation between wing shape and lift distribution

1. Analysis: determine the lift distribution for given wing

shape
2. Design: determine wing shape for desired lift distribution

Lifting line theory: the wing is replaced by a vortex filament with

variable circulation (y) at the quarter-chord line + free
vortices
7
 Essential concept of wing theory

Central subject of wing theory:

Relation between wing shape and lift distribution

direct (Kutta-Joukovsky)
circulation (y) local lift L '  V  

Two ways to compute

lift from circulation
2D airfoil theory
which should match!
corrected for induced
downwash
c l  c l (  eff )  a 0 [    i   L 0 ] local lift L '  c l 1
2
V  2
c

8
 Lift Distribution
Do not confuse:
Wing lift
L Sectional lift
L’(y)
z L’(y)

Spanwise lift distribution of the wing Chordwise lift distribution on the airfoil
b /2 c

L  C L q S   L ' dy L '  cl q  c   p dx
b / 2 0

9
 3-D Vortex Theory: the vortex filament

flow around a real wing  uniform flow + vortices

V 

2D: Straight vortex line: 3D general: curved vortex filament

r P


induced velocity V 
2r

10
3-D Vortex Theory: Helmholtz’s vortex theorems
(compare the velocity induced by the vortex filament
to the magnetic field induced by an electrical current)

• The circulation strength  remains constant along the

filament
• a vortex filament cannot end in the flow, but:
– extends to infinity
– ends at a boundary
– forms a closed loop
1  2
consequence:

1
2

11
 3-D Vortex Theory: The Biot-Savart Law
The contribution dV of a filament section
dl
to the induced velocity in P:

 dl r
dV  θ
4 |r |
3

The Biot-Savart Law

Direction: dV is perpendicular todl andr Note:  is the dl  r

angle:

Magnitude:  sin 
| dV |  dl
4
2
r

12
Properties of a straight vortex filament segment (1)
B
Finite segment AB, constant 


B
sin 
V 
4

A
r
2
dl
A

h
B r 
θ sin  1 1
dl  d
r 
h
 
h
d r
2
h
l -θ l
 tan 
dl
sin
2

P
h

B
sin  
A V 
4

A
h
d 
4h
(cos  A  cos  B )

13
Properties of a straight vortex filament segment (2)
B  
θB V  (cos  A  cos  B )  (cos  A  cos  B )
4h 4h
    B
B

Note: A and B are the internal angles of 

h P ABP
θA

A  A
A
Special cases:
• infinite vortex filament :  
V  (1  1) 
A = B = 0: 4h 2h

(=same as 2D
vortex)
• semi-infinite filament:
A  
A =90º; B = 0: V  (0  1) 
4h 4h

14
 Prandtl’s Classical Lifting-Line Theory




The Horseshoe Vortex as a simple model of a finite wing

• the wing itself  a bound vortex at the 1/4-chord line
is fixed, hence, experiences lift (L’ = V )
• the tip vortices  free-trailing vortices
free to adjust to the local flow direction, no
lift
• All vortices have the same circulation strength ;
Helmholtz
• the free trailing vortices extend to infinity
downstream
15
 The horseshoe vortex
Downwash induced along the wing
 by the two trailing (wing tip)
vortices
 
w( y )   
4 ( b / 2  y ) 4 ( b / 2  y )


right tip left tip
vortex vortex
 b
w( y ) 
4  y2
2
(b / 2)
Remarks:
• w < 0 when  > 0: the induced flow is indeed downwards for
positive lift
• Problems with the simple horseshoe-vortex model of a wing:
not realistic! → crude model for
 (y) = constant lift distribution
influence away from the wing
 |w|   at the tips

16
 Refinement of the horseshoe vortex model

• Instead of a single horseshoe vortex: superposition of multiple systems

• Each vortex has a different span but the bound vortex segments coincide
on the same line and form the lifting line (= the wing)
• The circulation  along the lifting line is no longer constant, but it varies
along the span in a stepwise fashion (need not be symmetrical!)
• At each discontinuity of  a wake vortex of corresponding strength
appears → “discrete vortex wake”

17
Extension of the horseshoe vortex model

towards the lifting-line model

Extrapolate this concept:

infinite number of
elementary horseshoe
vortices
to obtain
a continuous (y)

18
 Principle of the lifting line

 + d

 d

• The wing is replaced by a bound vortex with (continuously) varying circulation

(y)
• The trailing vortices create a ‘vortex wake’ in the form of a continuous vortex
sheet
– local strength of the trailing vortex at position y corresponds to
the change in (y): d = (d/dy) dy
– the vortex sheet is assumed to remain flat (no deformation)
• Validity: good approximation for straight, slender wings at moderate lift 19
 Determining the downwash of the lifting line
Strength of the trailing vortex at position y (y) w
y0
along the wing span:
• Take small segment of the lifting line, dy, y0 - y
dy
at position y
d = (d/dy) dy
• Over this segment the change in circulation of
the lifting line is: d = (d/dy) dy
• This is equal to the strength of the trailing vortex
d
• The contribution dw to the induced velocity at position dw 
y0 : 4 ( y 0  y)
Total velocity at position y0 induced
by the entire vortex wake: induced angle of attack:

( d  / dy )
b /2
1 w( y0 )
w( y0 ) 
4

b / 2
( y0  y)
dy i ( y )  
0
V

20
 The relation between circulation and wing shape
dc l
• Use ‘2D’ airfoil theory, but modified by the effective flow (a0  )
direction: d
c l  c l ( eff )  a 0 [  eff   L  0 ]  a 0 [    i   L  0 ]

• From the relation between lift and circulation:

L' V   2  ( y )
cl    0

1
2
V  2
c V  c V  c ( y
1
2
2
0
)

( d  / dy )
b /2
w( y0 ) 1
• combination: 
cl
  L 0   i
i ( y )  
0
V

4V 

b / 2
( y0  y)
dy

a0

2 ( y 0 ) ( d  / dy )
b /2
1
( y )  0
a 0V  c ( y 0 )
  L 0 ( y 0 ) 
4V 

b / 2
( y0  y)
dy

The fundamental equation of Prandtl’s lifting-line theory

21
Prandtl’s lifting-line equation (the wing equation)
2 ( y 0 ) ( d  / dy )
b /2
1
 ( y ) L 
0 0
( y0 ) 
a0 ( y 0 ) V  c( y 0 )

4V 

b / 2
( y0  y)
dy

Some remarks:
1. This equation describes the relation between circulation and wing
properties
2. It is linear in 
3. For a wing without twist ( and L=0 are constant along the span):
• circulation  is proportional to  – L=0
• for every value of  the lift distribution has the same form
(which depends on a0(y), c(y) and b, therefore, on the wing shape)
• the total lift is zero when  = L=0 and then:   0
4. For a wing with twist ( and L=0 are not constant):

22
 Wing properties for given circulation (y)
1. Lift distribution: L ' ( y )  V  ( y )

b /2 b /2 b /2
L 2
2. Total lift: L   L ' dy  V  ( y ) dy
b / 2

b / 2
CL 
qS

V S
 ( y ) dy
b / 2

( d  / dy )
b /2
1
3. Induced angle of attack
:
i ( y )  0
4V 

b / 2
( y0  y)
dy

b /2 b /2 b /2

4. Induced drag:
Di  D
b / 2
i
' dy  L'
b / 2
i
dy  V   ( y )  ( y ) dy
b / 2
i

b /2
Di 2
CD
i

qS

V S
 ( y )  ( y ) dy
b / 2
i

23
 The elliptical lift distribution (1)
Consider the following “elliptical” lift distribution:
(y) 0 =
y max.circulation
( y )  0 1( )
2

b /2
Compute the downwash velocity from:
y
d  / dy
b /2
1 -b/2 b/2
w( y0 ) 
4

b / 2
y0 y
dy
(  0 ) ( )

( )  0 sin 
coordinate b
y  cos 
transformation: 2
 
1 d / d 0 cos  0
w ( 0 )  
2 b
 cos   cos 
0 0
d  
2 b
 cos   cos 
0 0
d  
2b

w 0 =
i    Downwash and induced angle of
V 2 bV 
attack are constant over the span of
the wing!
24
 The elliptical lift distribution (2)
– Calculation of the total lift: dy 
b
sin  d ( )  0 sin 
2
b /2  
b b b
 V   ( y )  V   ( ) sin  d   V  0   d   V   
2
L dy sin 0
b / 2
2 0
2 0
4

• Relation 4L 4  (C L V 
1 2
S) 2V  S
0   2
 CL
between 0 and V b  V b  b
C L:
0 CL CL
– The induced angle of i   
attack 2 bV   2
(b / S )  A

A = b2/S: is called the ‘aspect ratio’ (AR) of the wing

typical values: 6-8 for subsonic aircraft
10-22 for glider aircraft

25
 The elliptical lift distribution (3)
Calculation of the induced
drag:
b /2 b /2

Di  L'
b / 2
i
dy  i  L ' dy
b / 2
 i L

CL
Note that i  is constant here
 A

Conclusions:
2
CL
 i C L 
• The induced drag is the “drag due to lift”
CD
i
 A • Remember : total drag C D  c d  C D i

• CD ~CL
i
2
: quadratic dependence
1
• CD ~ : large AR decreases induced drag
i
A

26
 The elliptical lift distribution - wing shape
What wing shape can generate an elliptical lift distribution?
• assume: no twist: so  and L-0 are constant
• assume: lift slope a0= dcl /d (  2) is constant
• consequence: (with also i constant)

cl  a 0 [    i   L 0 ]  constant  C L
b /2 b /2

Remark: c l  C L
1 1
Proof: C L 
qS

b / 2
c l q  c dy  cl
S
 c dy  c
b / 2
l

• required variation of the chord:

L '( y) y
L '( y)  cl q  c ( y ) c( y )  ~ L '( y) ~ ( y ) ~ 1( )
2

q cl b /2

The wing must have an elliptical

planform
27
 Lift curve of the elliptic wing: CL()
We found that: • c l  C L (= constant)
CL for an elliptic wing
• i  (= constant)
 A

• cl  a 0 [    i   L 0 ]
for a general wing
where: a  dc l
d
0

 CL 
Combining: CL  c l  a 0 [    i   L 0 ]  a 0    L 0  
  A
 a0 
solve for CL: C L 1    a 0 (   L  0 )
 A 
dC a0
note: CL = 0 when  = L=0 and:
L

d 1  a 0 / A

28
Effect of Aspect Ratio on the lift-curve CL()
for an elliptic wing:
dC a0
a  L

d 1  a 0 / A

(a0 is the lift-slope of an infinite

wing)
The lift slope is reduced.

physical explanation: the downwash

reduces the effective angle of attack:

dC dc l dc l d  eff
L
  .
d d d  eff d

d i
 a0 1 1
d

29
 The elliptical lift distribution - summary
CL
• Constant downwash along the span  i 
 A
2
CL
• Induced drag: C D i  i C L 
 A

dC a0
• Lift slope: a  L

d 1  a 0 / A

• effect of increasing the wing aspect ratio: - induced drag

smaller
- lift-slope larger (a 
a0 )
• Practical significance of the elliptical wing:
– optimum wing shape: minimal induced drag for given lift
– reference wing: reasonable approximation for real wings
30
 General lift distribution
For the elliptical wing: ( )  0 sin  with: y 
b
cos 
2
CL
and: 0  2 bV  a constant depending
A
linearly on CL, hence, on 

Describe the circulation of a general wing with a Fourier sine series:

N

( )  2 bV  A
n 1
n
sin n 
constants that
Note: depend on 
• The number of terms N should be taken “sufficiently large” Elliptical wing:
•  = 0 at the tips N=1; A1=CL/A
Questions to be answered:
• what are the aerodynamic properties (lift, induced drag)?
• what is the relation between the coefficients and the wing geometry?

31
 General lift distribution: total lift
N

( )  2 bV  A
n 1
n
sin n 

Calculation of the lift coefficient:

b /2 
L 2 b
CL 
qS

V S
 ( y ) dy
b / 2

V S

0
( ) sin  d 

 
2b
2 N
b
2 N


S

0 n 1
A n sin n  sin  d  2
S
 
n 1
A n sin n  sin
0
 d  2 A . A1 .
2

Standard integrals:
=A = 0 when n  1

CL  A1 .A = /2 when n =1

(Depends only on the first

coefficient)
32
 General lift distribution: downwash
d
N N

( )  2 bV  A
n 1
n
sin n 
d
 2 bV   nA
n 1
n
cos n 

( d  / dy )
b /2
1
Calculation of the induced angle of attack: i ( y 0 ) 
4V 

b / 2
( y0  y)
dy

 
1 d / d 2 bV 
N
cos n 
 i ( 0
) 
2 bV 
 cos   cos  d 
2 bV 
 n 1
nA n  cos   cos  d
0 0 0 0

sin n  0
Standard integrals:  
sin  0

sin n  0
N

 i ( 0
)   nA
n 1
n
sin 
(all coefficients
are relevant!)
0

33
 General lift distribution: induced drag
sin n 
N N

( )  2 bV  
n 1
A n sin n   i ( )   nA n
sin 
n 1

Calculation of the induced-drag coefficient:

b /2 
Di 2 b
CD
i

qS

V S
 ( y )  ( y ) dy
b / 2
i

V S

0
( )  ( ) sin  d 
i


 N  N sin n 
2
2b

S
0  
n 1
A n sin n    nA n
 n 1
 sin  d 
sin  
2 N N 
2b

S
 nA
n 1 m 1
n
Am  sin n  sin m  d 
0
N

 A  nA
2
= 0 when n  m CD n
= /2 when n = m i
n 1

34
General lift distribution: summary and conclusions
N  N
 An 
2

 A1 .A  A  nA  A 1   n   
2 2
CL CD n
A1
 n 2  A1  
i
n 1

2
CL
2
 An
N

CD  (1   ) where    n    0
i
A n 2  A1 
2
CL 1
or : C D  where e  1 the " span efficiency factor"
i
Ae (1   )

Conclusion:
• the elliptic wing ( = 0, e = 1) gives the lowest possible induced
drag (for given lift and aspect ratio)

35
 Effect of wing planform and aspect ratio
2
CL a0
CD  (1   ) a 
i
 A 1  ( a 0 / A )( 1   )

• Values of  and  depend on planform and aspect ratio of the wing

• Effect of wing planform on 

for a tapered wing

example

A tapered wing with taper

ratio ct/cr = 0.3 is almost as
good as an elliptical wing!

36
 Final conclusions

the effect of wing planform on the induced drag
2
CL
CD  (1   )
i
 A

• In order to reduce the induced drag it is more

important to increase the aspect ratio A than trying
to approach the elliptic lift distribution accurately
• A tapered wing with taper ratio ct/cr = 0.3 is almost
as good as an elliptical wing and is much easier to
manufacture
• Note that the parameter  is a constant (i.e.,
independent of ) only for a wing without twist!
• Remember:
total drag = induced drag + profile drag (~ viscosity)

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 Wing theory - a summary
• Lifting-line theory:
– The wing is replaced by a bound vortex at the 1/4-chord line of the wing
with varying circulation (y): the lifting line
– The trailing vortices form a flat sheet of distributed vorticity: the vortex
wake
• Limitations of the classical theory:
– slender wings (large aspect ratio, or: span>>chord)
– straight wings (no wing sweep)
–

moderate aerodynamic loading (no deformation of the vortex wake)
c l ~ eff
– linear relation

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