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Priority Queues (Heaps)

Advanced Data Structures

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Motivation
„ Queues are a standard mechanism for
ordering tasks on a first-come, first-served
basis
„ However, some tasks may be more
important or timely than others (higher
priority)
„ Priority queues
„ Store tasks using a partial ordering based on priority
„ Ensure highest priority task at head of queue
„ Heaps are the underlying data structure of
priority queues
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Priority Queues
„ Main operations
„ insert (i.e., enqueue)
„ deleteMin (i.e., dequeue)
„ Finds the minimum element in the queue, deletes it
from the queue, and returns it
„ Performance
„ Goal is for operations to be fast
„ Will be able to achieve O(log2N) time
insert/deleteMin amortized over multiple
operations
„ Will be able to achieve O(1) time inserts
amortized over multiple insertions

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Simple Implementations
„ Unordered list
„ O(1) insert
„ O(N) deleteMin
„ Ordered list
„ O(N) insert
„ O(1) deleteMin
„ Balanced BST
„ O(log2N) insert and deleteMin
„ Observation: We don’t need to keep the
priority queue completely ordered

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Binary Heap
„ A binary heap is a binary tree
with two properties
„ Structure property
„ A binary heap is a complete binary
tree
„ Each level is completely filled
„ Bottom level may be partially filled from
left to right
„ Height of a complete binary tree
with N elements is log2 N
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Binary Heap Example

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Binary Heap
„ Heap-order property
„ For every node X, key(parent(X)) ≤
key(X)
„ Except root node, which has no
parent
„ Thus, minimum key always at root
„ Or, maximum, if you choose
„ Insert and deleteMin must
maintain heap-order property
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Implementing
Complete Binary
Trees as Arrays
„ Given element at position i in the
array
„ i’s left child is at position 2i
„ i’s right child is at position 2i+1
„ i’s parent is at position i / 2
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Fix heap after

deleteMin
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Heap Insert
„ Insert new element into the heap
at the next available slot (“hole”)
„ According to maintaining a complete
binary tree
„ Then, “percolate” the element
up the heap while heap-order
property not satisfied

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Heap Insert:
Example

Insert 14:
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Heap Insert:
Implementation
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Heap DeleteMin
„ Minimum element is always at the
root
„ Heap decreases by one in size
„ Move last element into hole at root
„ Percolate down while heap-
order property not satisfied
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Heap DeleteMin: Example

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Heap DeleteMin: Example

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Heap DeleteMin: Example

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Heap DeleteMin:
Implementation

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Heap DeleteMin:
Implementation

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Other Heap Operations

„ decreaseKey(p,v)
„ Lowers value of item p to v
„ Need to percolate up
„ E.g., change job priority
„ increaseKey(p,v)
„ Increases value of item p to v
„ Need to percolate down
„ remove(p)
„ First, decreaseKey(p,-∞)
„ Then, deleteMin
„ E.g., terminate job
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Building a Heap
„ Construct heap from initial set of N
items
„ Solution 1
„ Perform N inserts
„ O(N) average case, but O(N log2 N) worst-
case
„ Solution 2
„ Assume initial set is a heap
„ Perform a percolate-down from each
internal node (H[size/2] to H[1])
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BuildHeap Example

Leaves are all valid heaps

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BuildHeap Example

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BuildHeap Example

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BuildHeap Example

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BuildHeap Implementation

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BuildHeap Analysis
„ Running time of buildHeap
proportional to sum of the heights of
the nodes
„ Theorem 6.1
„ For the perfect binary tree of height h
h+1
containing 2 – 1 nodes, the sum of
h+1
heights of the nodes is 2 – 1 – (h + 1)
„ Since N = 2h+1 – 1, then sum of
heights is O(N)
„ Slightly better for complete binary tree
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Binary Heap
Operations Worst-
case Analysis
„ Height of heap is log2 N
„ insert: O(log2N)
„ 2.607 comparisons on average, i.e., O(1)
„ deleteMin: O(log2N)
„ decreaseKey: O(log2N)
„ increaseKey: O(log2N)
„ remove: O(log2N)
„ buildHeap: O(N)
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Applications
„ Operating system scheduling
„ Process jobs by priority
„ Graph algorithms
„ Find the least-cost, neighboring
vertex
„ Event simulation
„ Instead of checking for events at
each time click, look up next event to
happen
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Priority Queues:
Alternatives to Binary
Heaps
„ d-Heap
„ Each node has d children
„ insert in O(logd N) time
„ deleteMin in O(d logd N) time
„ Binary heaps are 2-Heaps
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Mergeable Heaps
„ Heap merge operation
„ Useful for many applications
„ Merge two (or more) heaps into one
„ Identify new minimum element
„ Maintain heap-order property
„ Merge in O(log N) time
„ Still support insert and deleteMin in O(log N)
time
„ Insert = merge existing heap with one-element
heap
„ d-Heaps require O(N) time to merge
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Leftist Heaps
„ Null path length npl(X) of node X
„ Length of the shortest path from X to a
node without two children
„ Leftist heap property
„ For every node X in heap,
npl(leftChild(X)) ≥ npl(rightChild(X))
„ Leftist heaps have deep left
subtrees and shallow right subtrees
„ Thus if operations reside in right subtree,
they will be faster
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Leftist Heaps
npl(X) shown in nodes

Leftist heap Not a leftist heap

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Leftist Heaps
„ Theorem 6.2
„ A leftist tree with r nodes on the right
path must have at least 2r – 1 nodes.
„ Thus, a leftist tree with N nodes
has a right path with at most log(N
+1) nodes
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Leftist Heaps
„ Merge heaps H1 and H2
„ Assume root(H1) > root(H2)
„ Recursively merge H1 with right subheap of
H2
„ If result is not leftist, then swap the left
and right subheaps
„ Running time O(log N)
„ DeleteMin
„ Delete root and merge children
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Leftist Heaps: Example

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Leftist Heaps: Example

Merge H2 (larger root) with right

sub-heap of H1 (smaller root).

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Leftist Heaps: Example

Attach previous heap as H1’s right child.

Leftist heap?

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Leftist Heaps: Example

Swap root’s children to make leftist heap.

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Skew Heaps
„ Self-adjusting version of leftist heap
„ Skew heaps are to leftist heaps as splay
trees are to AVL trees
„ Skew merge same as leftist merge,
except we always swap left and right
subheaps
„ No need to maintain or test NPL of
nodes
„ Worst case is O(N)
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„ Amortized cost of M operations is O(M
log N)

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Binomial Queues
„ Support all three operations in
O(log N) worst-case time per
operation
„ Insertions take O(1) average-case
time
„ Key idea
„ Keep a collection of heap-ordered
trees to postpone merging
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Binomial Queues
„ A binomial queue is a forest of binomial
trees
„ Each in heap order
„ Each of a different height
„ A binomial tree Bk of height k consists
of two Bk-1 binomial trees
„ The root of one Bk-1 tree is the child of the
root of the other Bk-1 tree
Bk =
B
k-1

B
k-1
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Binomial Trees

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Binomial Trees
„ Binomial trees of height k have
exactly 2k nodes
k
,
„ Number of nodes at depth d is the
d
binomial coefficient
„ A priority queue of any size
can be represented by a
binomial queue
„ Binary representation of Bk
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Binomial Queue
Operations
„ Minimum element found by
checking roots of all trees
„ At most (log2 N) of them, thus O(log
N)
„ Or, O(1) by maintaining
pointer to minimum element
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Binomial Queue
Operations
„ Merge (H1,H2)  H3
„ Add trees of H1 and H2 into H3 in increasing order by
depth
„ Traverse H3
„ If find two consecutive Bk trees, then create a Bk+1 tree
„ If three consecutive Bk trees, then leave first, combine
last two
„ Never more than three consecutive Bk trees
„ Keep binomial trees ordered by height
„ min(H3) = min(min(H1),min(H2))
„ Running time O(log N)
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Merge Example

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Binomial Queue
Operations
„ Insert (x, H1)
„ Create single-element queue H2
„ Merge (H1,H2)
„ Running time proportional to minimum k such
that Bk not in heap
„ O(log N) worst case
„ Probability Bk not present is 0.5
„ Thus, likely to find empty Bk after two tries on
average
„ O(1) average case
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Binomial Queue
Operations
„ deleteMin (H1)
„ Remove min(H1) tree from H1
„ Create heap H2 from the children of min(H)
„ Merge (H1,H2)
„ Running time O(log N)
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deleteMin Example

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Binomial Queue
Implementation
„ Array of binomial trees
„ Trees use first-child, right-
sibling representation
H3 :
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merge (cont.)

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merge (cont.)

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deleteMin (cont.)

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Priority Queues in STL

„ Binary heap #include <iostream>
#include <queue>
„ Maintains using namespace std;
maximum int main ()
element {
priority_queue<int> Q;
„ Methods for (int i=0; i<100; i++)
„ Push, top, Q.push(i);
while (! Q.empty())
pop, empty, {
clear
cout << Q.top() << endl;
Q.pop();
}
}
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STL priority queue

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Summary
„ Priority queues maintain the
minimum or maximum element
of a set
„ Support O(log N) operations worst-
case
„ insert, deleteMin, merge
„ Support O(1) insertions average
case
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„ Many applications in support of
other algorithms

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