Leaving Certificate Higher Level Genetics Questions

2010
7. (a) Explain three of the following terms:
(i) freemartin condition
(ii) hermaphrodite
(iii) artificial selection
(iv) pedigree animal

(b) In guinea pigs the allele for black coat (B) is dominant over the allele for brown coat (b). A pair of
guinea pigs produces a litter of eight piglets; four of the litter are black and four are brown.
(i) Give the phenotypes and genotypes of the parents.
(ii) Using a Punnett square and labelling all genotypes and phenotypes, illustrate this cross.
(iii) What name is given to this type of cross?

(c) (i) Explain how polyploidy arises in plants.

(ii) Name and give an example of one type of polyploidy.

(d) Account for the importance attached to index of calving difficulty in A.I. sire catalogues.
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2009
7. (a) Explain any two of the following terms:
Lethal gene
Recessive gene
Sex-linked gene

(b) Suggest reasons why the fruit fly (Drosophila) is a suitable subject for genetics experiments.

(c) In Maize G represents green and g represents albino. 55 maize seeds are sown and the results
show 42 green plants and 13 albino plants. Show by means of suitable crosses how this result might
occur starting with homozygous parents.

(d) Briefly outline the principal stages of embryo transfer.

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2008
7. (a) Explain four of the following terms, as used in genetics;
mutation, sex linkage, diploid, multiple alleles, back-crossing.

(b) The gender of offspring is determined by the male parent in mammals.

Illustrate this statement in terms of chromosomes.
 (c) A broad-leaved red-flowered snapdragon was crossed with a narrow-leaved white flowered
snapdragon and all the offspring were broad-leaved with pink flowers.
(i) Suggest why all the offspring were broad-leaved.
(ii) Suggest why all the offspring had pink flowers.
(iii) List the phenotypes that may result from a cross between two plants heterozygous for both
traits.
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2007
7. (a) Distinguish between each of the following:
(i) inbreeding and crossbreeding,
(ii) performance testing and progeny testing.

(b) In peas, the allele for round seed (R) is dominant over the allele for wrinkled seed (r). Outline the
cross between a heterozygous round-seeded plant and a wrinkled-seeded plant. In your answer
show the gametes produced and the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring.

(c) Write brief notes on three of the following:

(i) F1 hybrids
(ii) polyploidy
(iii) embryo transplantation
(iv) genetic modification
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2006
7. (a) Explain each of the following:
(i) The appearance of roan coat colour in Shorthorn cattle.
(ii) Lack of variation in plants that are propagated by cloning.
(iii) Continuous variation in many characters associated with higher organisms.
(iv) Why some defective phenotypes are more common in males than in females.

(b) In certain species of plants, the allele for straight stamen (S) is dominant to the allele for incurved
stamen (s) and the allele for plain petal (P) is dominant to the allele for striped petal (p). If pollen from
a homozygous straight stamen plain petal flower pollinates a flower with incurved stamens and
striped petals:
(i) State the genotype of the seeds formed.
(ii) Describe the phenotype of flowers produced when the seeds germinate and grow.
(iii) What ratio of offspring phenotypes could result from a cross between the F1 hybrid plant in (ii)
and a plant that is recessive for both traits?

(c) Outline the significance of meiosis in reproduction.

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2005
7. (a) (i) Outline briefly the production of F1 hybrid seeds.
(ii) State one advantage of using F1 hybrid seeds.

(b) In sweet peas, a cross between a red-petalled plant and a white-petalled plant produces pink-petalled
flowers in the progeny. Explain why this happens and show the cross using a diagram

(c) Describe the micro-propagation of plants and give one advantage of this technique.
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2004
7. (a) Explain the following terms as used in genetics: haploid, sex linkage, incomplete dominance.

(b) In guinea pigs the genes for hair colour and length are located on non-homologous chromosomes.
The allele for black (B) is dominant to the allele for brown (b) and the allele for short hair (S) is
dominant to the allele for long hair (s). If two guinea pigs, both heterozygous for hair colour and
length, were mated, state:
(i) the phenotype that might appear in the offspring.
(ii) the ratio of these phenotypes.

(c) (i) Outline the significance of meiosis in reproduction.

(ii) What is meant by the term mutation? State one factor that can cause mutations.
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2003
7. (a) Red flower colour in sweet pea plants is a homozygous dominant condition (RR).
Pink flowering sweet pea plants were crossed with pink flowering sweet pea plants.
The seeds from these plants were collected and sown, and the new plants produced flowers as
shown:
Number of plants with red flowers 27
Number of plants with pink flowers 56
Number of plants with white flowers 29
(i) State genotype of the original pink flowering parents.
(ii) Explain how the three flower types shown above resulted from a cross between two pink
flowered plants.
(iii) What offspring would result if a pink flowering sweet pea plant were crossed with a red
flowering sweet pea plant? Describe this cross and state the genotype and phenotype of the
offspring produced.
(iv) State one advantage for using plants in studies of genetics.
 (b) Cells contain chromosomes.
(i) If an animal somatic cell has 22 pairs of chromosomes state
(1) the number of chromosomes found in a gamete
(2) whether the gamete is haploid, diploid or triploid.
(ii) A female cow is homozygous for sex chromosomes (XX), and a male bull is heterozygous (XY)
for sex chromosomes. Describe with the aid of a diagram the inheritance of sex chromosomes
in cattle.
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2002
7. (a) When Gregor Mendel carried out experiments on pea plants he discovered that purple flower (PP)
colour was dominant to white flower (pp) colour. He called white colour recessive. He also
discovered that green pod (GG) colour was dominant to yellow pod (gg) colour.
(1) Explain the underlined terms.
(2) State the phenotypes of the following pea plants: PPGG, PpGg, ppGg.
(3) Mendel crossed a pea plant homozygous for purple flower colour and green pod colour with a
pea plant homozygous for white flower colour and yellow pod colour. Describe the above
cross and state the genotype and phenotype of the offspring (F1) produced.
(4) Mendel further crossed the offspring (F1) with a pea plant homozygous for white flower colour
and yellow pod colour.
Describe this cross and state the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring (F2) produced.

(b) Diagram 1 represents the chromosomes contained in an animal cell. Copy diagram 2 into your
answer book and using the same chromosomes shown in diagram 1 complete the diagram to show
clearly metaphase of mitosis.

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2001
7. (a) In poultry, feathered legs (FF) are dominant over clean legs (ff) and white plumage (WW) is dominant
over black plumage (ww). What will be the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of each of the
following crosses?
(i) FFWW x ffww
(ii) FFww x ffWW
(iii) FfWw x FFWW
 (b) Explain each of the following:
(i) crossing-over during meiosis,
(ii) incomplete dominance,
(iii) continuous variation within a population of organisms,
(iv) multiple alleles.
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2000
7. (a) Explain each of the following: phenotype, back-cross, allele.

(b) Explain why Mendal selected pea plants in his experiments on heredity.

(c) Use labelled diagrams to show the difference between mitosis and meiosis.

(d) In maize seeds smooth kernel (K) and starchy endosperm (S) are both dominant traits. A plant which
is homozygous dominant for both traits is crossed with a plant which is heterozygous for both traits.
State the phenotype and genotype of the seeds on a plant resulting from this cross.
(48 marks)

1999
7. (a) Explain each of the following: centrosome, genotype, hybrid.

(b) Explain Mendel’s second law of inheritance using a suitable dihybrid cross.

(c) Describe, using a suitable example, the importance of the practice of back-crossing in genetics.
(48 marks)

1998
7. (a) Explain, using suitable examples, why it is important to be able to distinguish between a homozygous
and a heterozygous condition in breeding plants.

(b) In maize, the gene for hairy tassel (HH) is dominant to the gene for hairless condition. The gene for
full endosperm (EE) is dominant to the gene for shrivelled endosperm. If a cross is carried out
between plants, heterozygous for both characters (tassel and endosperm) state the phenotype and
genotype of the progeny expected from this cross.

(c) Mention two alleles which are studied to demonstrate Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment.
(48 marks)

1997
7. (a) Distinguish between Performance testing and Progeny testing.

(b) Explain, using your knowledge of genetics and with the aid of a diagram, how F1 hybrids are produced
by plant breeders.
 (c) Explain, using suitable examples, the concept of incomplete dominance and multiple alleles in
genetics.

(d) Outline a cross to explain the difference that occurs in the phenotype of the styles of maize plants
which may be identified as being long, short or intermediate in length.
(48 marks)

1996
7. (a) Name two forms of cell division and give examples of where each occurs in plants or in the animal
body.

(b) Explain each of the following:-

(i) Diploid number of chromosomes;
(ii) Gene mutation;
(iii) Cloning as practised by Plant Breeders;
(iv) Progeny testing.

(c) The gene controlling yellow kernel in maize (YY) is dominant over its allele colourless kernel (yy).
Describe the phenotype and genotype expected in the kernels of seeds collected from a cross
between a maize plant which is heterozygous for yellow kernel and one which is completely recessive
for colourless kernel
(48 marks)
2010 Marking Scheme
7. (a) FREEMARTIN:
a heifer calf/ which was a twin with a bull calf/ hormones/ should not be used for
breeding/ it will be infertile/ identified by unusually small genitals 2m+2m
HERMAPHRODITE:
both sexes in the one individual/ common in lower organisms/ liverfluke tapeworms
or other example/ both organs function in lower animals/ occurs occasionally in
farm animals/ should not be kept for breeding 2m+2m
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION:
used by breeders/ quicker than natural selection/ mutations are induced in plants/
using radiation, colchicines, cold shock &c/ in animals by selective breeding or
desirable characteristics/ recently by genetic modification 2m+2m
PEDIGREE ANIMAL:
purebreeding or homozygous (animals)/ achieved by selective breeding or
desirable characteristics/ whose lineage is recorded/ in a breed society
herdbook or register/ these animals have “papers”/ and herd book (studbook)
number/ used in A.I. stations (or breeding) 2m+2m

(b) (i) Parents phenotypes: black x brown 1m+1m

Parents genotypes: Bb x bb 1m+1m
(ii)

B B
Bb bb
b Black Brown

Punnet square: 2m
Gametes: 3 (1m)
Genotypes: 2 (1m)
Phenotypes: 2 (1m)

(iii) Test cross or back cross 3m

(c) CALVING DIFFICULTY INDEX:

because it is a result of progeny test/ therefore highly accurate and scientific/
important to know for heifers/ or small breed females (Jersey, Aberdeen Angus
&c)/ cow can’t be left calf on their own (supervised or vet present)/ cows may
require a section/ and subsequent sections/ low figure indicates easier
calving/ cost or loss to farmer 4m+4m
2009 Marking Scheme
7. (a) Lethal gene:
a gene which when expressed in the phenotype will cause death of the organism
Recessive gene:
a gene whose expression is masked in the presence of a dominant gene or only
expresses itself when present with another recessive gene
Sex-linked gene:
a gene carried on the X chromosome or on the Y chromosome or gene carried on
the sex chromosome(s) any two 3m+5m

(b) Large no. of offspring/ short reproductive time/ a few easily identifiable traits/ cheap/
do not require specialist equipment/ small number of chromosomes/
large chromosomes 4 (3m)

(c) Parents’ genotypes GG x gg 1m+1m

Parents’ gametes G* x g* 1m+1m
F1 offspring Gg* 1m

These hybrids when crossed give the genotype permutations below

Parents genotype Gg x Gg * 1m
Parents gametes G* g* x G g 1m+1m

Punnett Square
x G g
G GG* Gg* 1m+1m
g Gg* gg* 1m+1m

F2 offspring Result – 3 Green: 1 albino (accept ratio alone) 4m

2008 Marking Scheme

7. (a) mutation – change in genetic code
sex linkage – gene located on sex (X) chromosome
diploid – chromosomes in pairs/ 2n/ normal number of chromosomes
multiple alleles – more than two alleles of a gene (or diagram)
back-crossing – cross between hybrid (or heterozygous) organism and original
(or parent or homozygous recessive) organism (or diagram) 4 (3m)

(b) XX is female/ XY is male 2 (3m)

male parent donates X or Y gamete, female parent donates X/
if male donates X then offspring XX (female)/ if male donates Y then offspring
XY (male) (or shown by diagram) 2 (3m)
 (c) (i) allele for broad leaf dominant 3m
(ii) incomplete or partial dominance/ co-dominant/ lack of dominance 3m
(iii) Broad Red/ Broad Pink/ Broad White/ Narrow Red/ Narrow Pink/
Narrow White 6 (3m)

2007 Marking Scheme

7. (a) (i) inbreeding is crossing between relatives 3m
cross breeding involves a cross between non-relatives or varieties 3m
(ii) performance testing compares growth rate of animals under similar conditions 3m
progeny testing rates offspring relative to parents 3m

(b) Parents Rr X rr 2m+2m

Gametes R r r 2m+2m+2m
Offspring
Genotype Rr rr 2m+2m
Phenotype Round Wrinkled 2m+2m

(c) any three 3 (3m+3m)

(i) *progeny of cross/ between individuals that are genetically different
or between purebred lines or between homozygous parents/ desirable
characteristics/ seed production
(ii) *having three or more sets of chromosomes (or 3n+)/ infertile/ example
(iii) sperm from superior male/ hormone treatment/ eggs removed from high
performance animal/ fertilised in vitro/ embryo cloned/ *implanted in other
animal or organism
(iv) *altering genotype (genes) of an organism/ duplication or insertion of
genes from one species into another/ may benefit growth or survival of
organism/ example or GMOs or GM foods

2006 Marking Scheme

7. (a) (i) incomplete (lack of or co-) dominance 3m
(ii) asexual reproduction (mitosis)/ genotype identical to parent plant 3m
(iii) many genes or many alleles control or affect a characteristic 3m
(iv) recessive gene/ linked to sex (X) chromosome (no corresponding allele
on Y chromosome) 2 (3m)

(b) (i) SsPp or PpSs 6m

(ii) Straight stamen + plain petal 6m
(iii) Straight + plain : straight + striped : incurved + plain : incurved + striped 6m
1:1:1:1 6m

(c) reduces (halves) the chromosome number/ haploid (n)/ produces gametes/
diploid (2n) state/ restored at fertilisation/ crossing over produces variation/
independent assortment allows variation any three 3 (3m)
2005 Marking Scheme
7. (a) (i) individual plants with certain characteristics chosen/ breeding from
these plants takes place/ over a number of generations (inbreeding)/
to produce homozygous inbred lines/ two inbred lines crossed for F1
seeds any three 3 (3m)
(ii) hybrid vigour/ higher yield/ known traits/ uniform offspring any one 6m

(b) due to incomplete dominance 3m

Parents RR X rr (RR X WW) 2 (3m)
Gametes R r (R W) 2 (3m)
F1 Rr (RW) 3m
Phenotype Pink Pink 3m

(c) small pieces of plant cut/ grown on sterile medium/ form clump (callus)/
container/ plant hormones/ plant name/ develop into plants any three 3 (3m)

large number of plants in a short time/ genetically identical plants/ relatively

inexpensive/ disease free any one 3m

2004 Marking Scheme

7. (a) haploid: half full (single) set of chromosomes/ state of gametes/ N/ result
of meiosis 4m
sex linkage: gene located on sex chromosome or characteristic associated
with one sex 4m
incomplete dominance: one allele not dominant over other/ heterozygous
condition results in mix of phenotypes or example 4m

(b) (i) black short/ black long/ brown short/ brown long 4 (4m)
(ii) 9:3:3:1 4m
[allow marks if genotypes appear in correct numbers in sixteen boxes]

(c) (i) produces gametes/ produces haploid cells/ crossing over (chiasma) occurs/
allows for variation/ reduces chromosome number/ reduction division 2 (4m)
(ii) change (error) in genetic material/ change in base sequence in DNA/
change in chromosome number any one 4m
x rays/ radiation/ UV light (sunlight)/ mustard gas/ radon/
cigarette smoke/ asbestos/ colchicine any one 4m
2003 Marking Scheme
7. (a) (i) Rr (allow W for recessive allele) 3m
(ii) incomplete dominance (or explanation) 4m
(iii) Parents Rr X RR
Gametes R r R
F1 genotype RR Rr
F1 phenotype Red Pink 9 (2m)
(iv) fast results/ easy to manipulate/ contrasting traits/ large number
of offspring any one 3m

(b) (i) (1) 22 (2) Haploid 2 (3m)

(ii) Parents XX X XY
Gametes X X Y
F1 genotype XX XY
F1 phenotype female male 7 (2m)

2002 Marking Scheme

7. (a) (1) Dominant = gene prevents working or recessive gene (allele)/
expressed gene or allele 3m
Recessive = gene prevented in working by dominant gene (allele)
not expressed/ hidden 3m
(2) PPGG Purple Flower + Green Pod 2m
PpGg Purple Flower + Green Pod 2m
ppGg White Flower + Green Pod 2m
(3) Parents PPGG X ppgg
Gametes PG pg
Genotype PpGg
Phenotype Purple and Green 6 (1m)
(4) Parents PpGg X ppgg
Gametes PG, Pg, pG, pg pg
Genotypes PpGg, Ppgg ppGg ppgg
Phenotypes Purple & Purple & White & White &
Green Yellow Green Yellow 15 (1m)

(b)

Diagram (0m, 2m, 4m)

Labels 2 (4m)
2001 Marking Scheme
7. (a) (i) F1 genotype FfWw 4m
F1 phenotype feathered and white 4m
(ii) F1 genotype FfWw 4m
F1 phenotype feathered and white 4m
(iii) F1 genotype FFWW, FFWw, FfWW, FfWw 4m
F1 phenotype feathered and white 4m

(b) Definitions
(i) Crossing over – movement/ transfer/ exchange/ of gene/ chromosome
from one place to another 3m+3m
(ii) Incomplete dominance – one trait fails to dominate another/ an intermediate
form of the trait results/ explanation using example 3m+3m
(iii) Continuous variation – characteristics are quantative/ they do not fit into
distinct groups/ continuous variation between two extreme forms of the
trait/ explanation using example 3m+3m
(iv) Multiple alleles – many forms of the same gene/ more than two alleles
control a trait/ explanation using example 6m
Example alone without explanation for any of the above 3m only