LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1 Characteristics of Semiconductor diode, Zener diode, photo diode, and photo

transistor,
2 Characteristics of NPN Transistor under common emitter, common collector
and common base configurations
3 Characteristics of JFET and draw the equivalent circuit
4 Characteristics of UJT and generation of saw tooth waveforms
5 Design and frequency response characteristics of a Common Emitter amplifier
6 Characteristics of light activated relay circuit
7 Design and testing of RC phase shift and LC oscillators
8 Characteristics of Single Phase half-wave and full wave rectifiers with
inductive and capacitive
9 Design of Differential amplifiers using FET
10 Measurement of frequency and phase angle using CRO
11 Realization of passive filters
 INDEX

Ex. Date Name of the Experiment Pag Signature

No e
No.
1. Characteristics of PN Junction Diode and Zener diode 01
2. Characteristics of Photodiode and Photo Transistor 13
3. Characteristics of CE configuration of BJT 21
4. Characteristics of CB configuration of BJT 29
5. Characteristics of CC configuration of BJT 35
6. Characteristics of JFET and draw the equivalent circuit 41
7. Characteristics of UJT and generation of saw 47
tooth
waveforms
8. Design and Frequency response characteristics of 59
a
Common Emitter amplifier
9. Design of RC phase shift Oscillator and LC Oscillator 65
10. Design of Single Phase half-wave and full wave 73
rectifiers
11. Realization of Passive Filters 81
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PIN CONFIGURATION OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

 Ex. No: 1 (a)
CHARACTERISITCS OF PN JUNCTION
Date : DIODE

AIM:
To determine the forward and reverse bias V-I characteristics of PN-Junction diode

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.N Name of the Apparatus Range Type Quantity

o
1 PN junction diode 1N4001 - l
2 Resistor 1 kΩ - 1
3 Breadboard - - 1
4 RPS (0-30)V/2A Dual 1
5 Voltmeter (0-1)V , (0-30) V MC Each1
6 Ammeter (0-30) mA, (0-500)A MC Each 1
7 Connecting wires - - As required

THEORY

A PN junction diode is known as a semiconductor (or) crystal diode. The outstanding

property of a crystal diode is to conduct current in one direction only. A diode is a PN junction
formed by a layer of P type and layer of N type Semiconductors. Once formed the free
electrons in the N region diffuse across the junction and combine with holes in P region and so a
depletion Layer is developed. The depletion layer consists of ions, which acts like a barrier for
diffusion of charged beyond a certain limit. The difference of potential across the depletion layer
is called the barrier potential. At 2.5degree the barrier potential approximately equal 0.7v for
silicon diode and 0.3v for germanium diode.

When the junction is forward bias, the majority carrier acquired sufficient energy to
overcome the barrier and the diode conducts. When the junction is reverse biased the depletion
layer widens and the barrier potential increases. Hence the Majority carrier cannot cross the
junction and the diode does not conduct. But there will be a leakage current due to minority
carrier. When diode is forward biased, resistance offered is zero, and when reverse biased
resistance offered is infinity. It acts as a perfect switch.
TABULATION 1:

PN JUNCTION DIODE FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS

S.No FORWARD VOLTAGE FORWARD CURRENT

(V) (mA)
(Vak) (Ia
k)

TABULATION 2:

PN JUNCTION DIODE REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS

REVERSE REVERSE CURRENT

S.No VOLTAGE (V) (A)
(-Vak) (-Iak)
Forward Biasing

When the Anode is connected to positive supply and the Cathode is connected to
negative supply, then the diode is called forward biased. When PN junction diode is forward
biases, the potential barrier is reduced and at a forward voltage of (0.7v) it is eliminated
altogether. The junction offers low resistance. Current flows in the circuit.

Reverse Biasing

To apply reverse bias, connect negative terminal of the supply to Anode and positive
terminal of the supply to Cathode. In this biasing the potential barrier is increased. The junction
offers very high resistance to current flow. No current flows in the circuit.

PROCEDURE FOR PN JUNCTION DIOIDE

Forward Bias Characteristics

1. The circuit connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. For the various input voltages, the current through the PN junction diode and the
voltage across the diode are noted down.
3. V-I characteristics is plotted and the dynamic resistance is calculated from the graph.
Knee voltage is found from the graph.

Reverse Bias Characteristics

1. The circuit connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. For the various input voltages, the current through the PN junction diode and the
voltage across the diode are noted down.
3. V-I characteristics is plotted. Reverse leakage current and reverse breakdown voltage
are calculated from the graph.
MODEL GRAPH FOR PN JUNCTION DIODE
Applications:
It is the process of rectifier as one of the part of DC Power Supplies. In cut-out circuits utilized
for waveform era. PN junctions have been used as rectifiers in power supplies, detectors in
RF circuits, Zener diodes which are voltage regulators, clippers, LED's, PIN diodes are RF
switches

INFERENCE

i). Static Resistance = R = V/I

= ii).
Dynamic resistance = R=∆Vf / ∆If
= iii).
Reverse Saturation Current =
iv). Cut-in Voltage =

RESULT:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PIN CONFIGURATION OF ZENER DIODE

 Ex. No: 1 (b)
CHARACTERISITCS OF ZENER DIODE
Date :

AIM:
To determine the forward and reverse bias V-I characteristics of Zener diode

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.N Name of the Apparatus Range Type Quantity

o
1 Zener Diode IZ9.2 - l
2 Resistor 1 kΩ - 1
3 Breadboard - - 1
4 RPS (0-30)V/2A Dual 1
5 Voltmeter (0-1)V , (0-10) V MC Each1
6 Ammeter (0-30) mA, (0- 10) mA MC Each 1
7 Connecting wires - - As required

THEORY

It is also known as voltage reference or voltage regulator. The reverse breakdown

may occur either due to avalanche or Zener effect. The Zener breakdown occurs when the
electric field across the junction produced due to the reverse voltage is sufficiently high. The
electric field exerts a force on electrons in the outermost shell. The force is so high that
electrons are pulled away from the parent nuclei and become free carriers. This ionization
which occurs due to electrostatic force of attraction is known as Zener effect. It causes an
increase in the number of free carriers and hence an increase in the reverse Current. The
Zener diodes with breakdown voltages of less than zener voltage 6V, operate predominantly
in Zener breakdown. Those with breakdown voltages greater than zener voltage 6V, operate
predominantly in avalanche breakdown.

Zener diode is a heavily doped Silicon diode. An ideal P-N junction diode does not
conduct in reverse biased condition. A zener diode conducts excellently even in reverse
biased condition. These diodes operate at a precise value of voltage called break down voltage.
A Zener diode when forward biased behaves like an ordinary P-N junction diode. A Zener
diode when reverse biased can undergo avalanche break down or zener break down.
TABULATION 1: ZENER DIODE FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS

S.No FORWARD VOLTAGE (V) FORWARD CURRENT (mA)

(Vak) (Ia
k)

TABULATION 2: ZENER DIODE REVERSE BIAS

CHARACTERISTICS

REVERSE REVERSE CURRENT

S.No VOLTAGE (V) (A)
(-Vak) (-Iak)
Avalanche Break down:
If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the junction
widens. Application of a very large electric field at the junction increases the kinetic energy of
the charge carriers which collides with the adjacent atoms and generates charge carriers by
breaking the bond, they in-turn collides with other atoms by creating new charge carriers, this
process is cumulative which results in the generation of large current resulting in Avalanche
Breakdown.

Zener Break down:

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the
junction reduces, it leads to the development of strong electric field and application of even a
small voltage at the junction may rupture covalent bond and generate large number of charge
carriers. Such sudden increase in the number of charge carriers results in Zener break down.

PROCEDURE

Forward Bias Characteristics

1. The circuit connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. For the various input voltages, the current through the Zener diode and the voltage
across the diode are noted down.
3. V-I characteristics is plotted and the dynamic resistance is calculated from the graph.
Knee voltage is found from the graph.

Reverse Bias Characteristics

1. The circuit connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. For the various input voltages, the current through the Zener diode and the voltage
across the diode are noted down.
3. V-I characteristics is plotted. Reverse leakage current and reverse breakdown voltage are
calculated from the graph.
MODEL GRAPH FOR ZENER DIODE
Applications:
zener diode is used to provide a reference to the Bluetooth device. Another application involves
use of Zener diode as a voltage regulator. This filtered DC voltage is regulated by the diode to
provide a constant reference voltage.

INFERENCE

i). Static Resistance = R = V/I

= ii).

Dynamic resistance = R=∆Vf/∆If

=iii). Reverse

Saturation Current =

iv). Cut-in Voltage =

RESULT:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTODIODE

MODEL GRAPH:
 Ex.No: 2 (a)
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTODIODE
Date :

AIM:
To determine the characteristics of photodiode
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO Apparatus Name Range/Type Quantity

1. Resistor 1kΩ 1
2. Diode QT971 1
3. AC power supply 230v,50Hz,1ɸ 1
4. Voltmeter (0-30V)MC 1
5. Ammeter (0-500µA) MC 1
6. Lamp - 1
7. RPS (0-30v) 1
8. Connecting wires - few
9. Phototransistor

THEORY:
A photo Diode is a two terminal PN junction device which operates in a reverse bias. It
has small transparent window, which allows light to strike the PN junction. A photo diode differs
from a rectifier diode in a sense that its reverse current increases with the light intensity at the PN
junction. When there is no light incident the reverse current is almost negligible and is called the
dark current. An increase in the amount of light energy produces an increase in the reverse
current for a given value of reverse bias voltage. This device is a low noise, high speed and
operates over a wide temperature range. The application for this photo diode includes remote
control, light curtains, data transmission and measurement & control.
TABULATION:

S.NO DARKNESS BRIGHTNESS

VD(V) ID(µA) VD(V) ID(µA)
PROCEDURE:
(i) Check the equipment and components to ensure the proper working conditions.
(ii) Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. Using breadboard with very
short wires.
(iii) Switch off the lamp and take the dark state reading.
(iv) Now, Switch on the lamp and take the bright state reading.
(v) Tabulate the readings and draw the graph by taking ‘V’ along x-axis and I along y-axis.
(vi) After completion of experiments switch off the power supply and disconnect
the components.

Application:
Medical devices
Safety
equipment
Optical communication
devices Position sensors
Bar code scanners
Automotive
devices

RESULT:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOTRANSISTOR
 Ex.No: 2(b)
CHARACTERISTICS OF
Date : PHOTOTRANSISTOR

AIM:
To determine the characteristics of phototransistor
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO Apparatus Name Range/Type Quantity

1. Resistor 1kΩ 1
2. Diode QT971 1
3. AC power supply 230v,50Hz,1ɸ 1
4. Voltmeter (0-30V)MC 1,1
6. Lamp - 1
7. RPS (0-30v) 1
8. Connecting wires - few
9. Phototransistor
10. Ammeter (0-30mA) MC

THEORY:
Phototransistor helps us to achieve photo multiplication or photo current
enhancement. In phototransistor, pairs are generated on the base region by illumination and
some majority carriers diffuse into the emitter, resulting in an injection current which is large.
The base load can even be left open but still majority current will cause injection in this
structure.

The photo transistor is a 3 terminal device which gives an electrical current as output
if an input light excitation is provided. It works in reverse bias. When reverse biased along with
the reverse bias current ICO, the light current IL is also added to the total output current. The
amount of current flow depends on the input light intensity given as excitation.
Phototransistor is basically a photodiode with amplification and operates by exposing its
base region to the light source. Phototransistor light sensors operate the same as photodiodes
except that they can provide current gain and are much more sensitive than the photodiode with
currents are 50 - 100 times greater than that of the standard photodiode. Phototransistors consist
mainly of a bipolar NPN transistor with the collector-base PN-junction reverse-biased. The
phototransistor’s large base region is left electrically unconnected and uses photons of light
to generate a base current which in turn causes a collector to emitter current to flow.
TABULATION:

S.NO BRIGHTNESS DARKNESS

VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOTRANSISTOR

i). Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

ii). Set the voltage of the bulb and vary the voltage of the diode in steps of 1V and
note down the diode current and note down the collector.
iii). Repeat the steps for VCE=2V, 4V etc.

iv). Plot the graph VCE vs IC to obtain the phototransistor curve.

Outcome:
On completion of the experiment, student will be able to:
1. analyze the characteristics of phototransistor.
2. analyze the forward bias characteristics.

Application:
Opto-isolators
Position
Sensing
Security Systems

RESULT
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF BJT (CE CONFIGURATION)

PIN CONFIGURATION OF BJT

 Ex. No: 3
CHARACTERISITCS OF CE CONFIGURATIONS
Date : OF BJT

AIM
To plot the input and output characteristics of NPN bipolar junction Transistor under CE
Configuration and determine its hybrid parameters

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.N Name of the Apparatus Range Type Quantity

o
1. Transistor - BC10 1
7
2. Resistor 1kΩ,10kΩ - 1
3. Breadboard - - 1
4. Connecting wires - - As required

5. Ammeter (0-10mA),(0-200μA) MC 1

6. Voltmeter (0-30V),(0-1V) MC 1
7. Regulated Power Supply (0-30V)/2A Dual 1

THEORY

A BJT is a three terminal two – junction semiconductor device in which the

conduction is due to both the charge carrier. Hence it is a bipolar device and it amplifier the sine
waveform as they are transferred from input to output. BJT is classified into two types NPN
or PNP. A NPN transistor consists of two N types in between which a layer of P is
sandwiched. The transistor consists of three terminal emitter, collector and base. The emitter
layer is the source of the charge carriers and it is heartily doped with a moderate cross
sectional area. The collector collects the charge carries and hence moderate doping and large
cross sectional area. The base region acts a path for the movement of the charge carriers. In order
to reduce the recombination of holes and electrons the base region is lightly doped and is of
hollow cross sectional area.
TABULATION 1. INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

VCE = Volts VCE =Volts VCE = Volts

S.NO
VBE(Volts) IB (A) VBE IB (A) VBE(Volts) IB (A)
(Volts)

MODEL GRAPH : INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

 Normally the transistor operates with the EB junction forward biased. In transistor,
the current is same in both junctions, which indicates that there is a transfer of resistance
between the two junctions. One to this fact the transistor is known as transfer resistance of
transistor.

Input Characteristics gives the relation between input current and input voltage at
constant output voltage. In CE configuration the curve is drawn between base current and base
emitter voltage at constant collector emitter voltage. When IB increases VBE increase. When
VCE increases the width of base region increase and reduces the base current. The phenomenon
is known as early effect. Output characteristics give the relation between Collector current and
collector emitter voltage at constant base current.

The output characteristics are divided as active region, cutoff region and saturation
region. The characteristic obtained when the collector current is nearly zero is known as cutoff
region. It is obtained when both the PN junctions are reverse biased. The saturation region
characteristic is obtained when both the junctions are forward biased. The collector current in
this region is independent of base current. In the active region the collector current increases
linearly with the increase in collector emitter voltage.

FORMULA
Input characteristics )V =
∆ BE |V
−Constant
(i) Input resistance (h
ie CE
IB∆
∆
(ii) Output resistance (h ) V= CE |I −Constant
oe ∆ B
∆IC
(iii) Forward current gain (hfe) = Ic −Constant
|V

∆IB CE
(iv) Reverse
(h voltage gain ) VBE =
∆ −Constant
|I
re ∆V B
CE
TABULATION 2. OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

IB = A IB = A
S.NO VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) IC (mA)

MODEL GRAPH: OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

PROCEDURE
1. Make the circuit for CE configuration. Connect all the voltmeters & Ammeters.
2. Input characteristics
a. Keep VCE (P2) constant, change P1 note IB & VBE .

b. Repeat the same procedure for different values of VCE.

c. Plot the input curve between IB & VBE for different values of VCE.
d. Find out the dynamic input resistance from curve plotted.

3. Output characteristics
a. Keep IB constant (by setting P1) change P2 note IC & VCE .

b. Repeat the same procedure for different values of IB.

c. Plot the output curve between IC & VCE for different values of IB.
d. Find out the dynamic output resistance, DC current gain & AC current gain using

the formulae
Applications:
CE Amplifier. The common emitter circuit is popular because it's well-suited for voltage
amplification, especially at low frequencies. Common-emitter amplifiers are also used in radio
frequency transceiver circuits. Common emitter configuration commonly used in low-noise
amplifiers.

INFERENCE:
(i) Input resistance (hie) =

(ii) Output resistance (hoe) =

(iii) Forward current gain (hfe) =

(iv) Reverse voltage gain (hre) =

RESULT:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION OF BJT

PIN DETAILS
 Ex. No: 4
CHARACTERISITCS OF CB CONFIGURATIONS
Date : OF BJT

AIM
To plot the input and output characteristics of NPN bipolar junction Transistor under CB
Configuration and determine its hybrid parameters

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Name of the Apparatus Range Type Quantity

S.N
o
1. Transistor - BC107 1
2. Resistor 2.2kΩ - 2
3. Breadboard - - 1
4. Connecting wires - - As required

5. Ammeter (0-30mA) MC 2

6. Voltmeter (0-30V) MC 1
7. Regulated Power Supply (0-30V)/2A Dual 1

FORMULA USED:
Input ∆V
= EB −Constant
(i) |V resistance (h )
ib CB∆
IE
∆VCB −Constant
(ii) Output resistance (h ) = |I
ob ∆ E
IC
∆ Ic
(iii) Forward current gain (hfb) = −Constant
|V

∆IE CB
(iv) Reverse voltage gain ) V=
∆ −Constant
(h EB |I

rb ∆V E
CB
TABULATION:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

S.NO VCB= V VCB= V

VEB(V) IE(mA VEB(V) IE(mA)
)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

S.NO IE= mA IE= mA

VCB(V) IC(m VCB(V) IC(mA)
A)
PROCEDURE:

(i) Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

(ii) To obtain input characteristics, VBC is kept constant by varying VBE corresponding
value IE. Then the graph is drawn by VBE along x-axis and IE along y-axis.

(iii) To obtain the output characteristics I E kept constant by varying VCB corresponding
IC is noted. Then the graph is drawn by VCB along x-axis and IC along y-axis.
(iv) The hybrid parameters are obtained from input and output characteristics graph.
Applications:
o It is mainly used at high frequencies where low source resistance is common.
o It is used for impedance matching in circuits with very low output resistances to those
with a high input resistance.

INFERENCE:
(i) Input resistance (hib) =

(ii) Output resistance (hob) =

(iii) Forward current gain (hfb) =

(iv) Reverse voltage gain (hrb) =

RESULT:
 Ex. No: 5
CHARACTERISITCS OF CC CONFIGURATIONS
Date : OF BJT

AIM
To plot the input and output characteristics of NPN bipolar junction Transistor under CC
Configuration and determine its hybrid parameters

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Name of the Apparatus Range Type Quantity

S.N
o
1. Transistor - BC107 1
2. Resistor 1 kΩ - 2
3. Breadboard - - 1
4. Connecting wires - - As required
(0-30mA) 1
5. Ammeter MC
(0-200 µA) 1
6. Voltmeter (0-10V) MC 2
7. Regulated Power Supply (0-30V)/2A Dual 1

FORMULA USED:
∆ = BC
(i) |V resistance (h ) V
Input −Constant
ib ∆EC
IB
∆VEC −Constant
(ii) Output resistance (h ) = |I
ob ∆ B
IE
∆IE
(iii) Forward current gain (hfb) = |VEC −Constant
∆IB

(iv) Reverse voltage gain ∆ ) V=

(h BC |I −Constant

rb ∆V B
EC
THEOR
Y
In CC configuration, Collector is common to both the input and output as shown in
figure. The direction of the arrow in the symbol shows current flow between the base and
emitter terminal, pointing from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type region,
exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol. For normal operation, the emitter-base
junction is forward- biased and the collector-base junction is reverse-biased.
TABULATION:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

S.NO VEC= V VEC= V

VBC(V) IB(µA VBC(V) IB(µA)
)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

S.NO IB= µA IB= µA

VEC(V) VEC( VEC(V) IC(mA)
V)
PROCEDURE:

(i) Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

(ii) To obtain input characteristics, VEC is kept constant by varying VBC corresponding
value IB. Then the graph is drawn by VBC along x-axis and IB along y-axis.
(iii) To obtain the output characteristics IB kept constant by varying VEC corresponding
IE is noted. Then the graph is drawn by VEC along x-axis and IE along y-axis.
(iv) The hybrid parameters are obtained from input and output characteristics graph.
Applications

This amplifier is used as an impedance matching circuit.

It is used as a switching circuit.
circuit
The high current gain combined with near-unity
near voltage gain makes this circuit a great
voltage buffer
It is also used for circuit isolation.
isolation

INFERENCE
∆VBC −Constant
(i) Input
|V resistance (h ) =
ib EC∆
IB
∆VEC −Constant
(ii) Output resistance (h ) = |I
ob B ∆
IE
∆
hfb) = IE |VEC −Constant
(iii) Forward current gain (h
∆IB

(iv) Reverse voltage gain ∆ ) V= −Constant

(h BC |I

rb ∆V B
EC

RESULT
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 Ex. No: 6
CHARACTERISTICS OF JFET
Date :

AIM:
To determine the static characteristics of JFET and to draw the equivalent circuit of JFET.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO Apparatus Name Range/Type Quantity

1. JFET BFW10 1
2. Ammeter (0-30mA)MC 1
3. Voltmeter (0-30 V)MC 1
4. Voltmeter (0-10 V)MC 1
5. RPS (0-30v) Dual 1
6. Resistor 1kΩ 1
7 Connecting wires - Few

FORMULA USED:
∆
1. Drain Resistance rd = VDS |VGS =constant
ID
∆
∆
2. Transfer conductance gm= ID |VDS = constant
VGS
∆
3. Amplification factor µ= rd gm

THEORY
Field effect transistor is one type of transistor having three terminals namely gate, source
and drain. The current conduction in this device is only due to majority carriers. In the normal
operation of FET, gate source junction is always reverse biased. Drain characteristics is the curve
between drain current and drain source voltage at constant gate source voltage. The current
increases linearly with voltage and remains constant at its maximum voltage. When the
voltage is further increased rapidly leading to the breakdown of the device. This characteristic is
used to find drain resistance of FET.

Transfer characteristics are the curve between drain current and gate source voltage at
constant drain source voltage. When gate source voltage is zero, the depletion regions are small
and the drain current will be maximum. When the voltage is increased, the depletion region
increases and reduces the current. This voltage is called pinch - off voltage. From this
characteristic, we can find the Trans conductance of FET.
TABULATION 1: DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS

VGS = V VGS = V
S.NO
VDS ID (mA) VDS ID (mA)
(V) (V)

Transfer characteristics:

S.NO VDS= V VDS= V

VGS(V) ID(mA) VGS(V) ID(mA)
PROCEDURE:

(i) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

(ii) To obtain the drain characteristics curve VGS is kept constant, by varying ID w.r.t to
VDS.
(iii) Hence the corresponding values of ID noted.
(iv) A graph is drawn by taking VDS-X-axis, ID-Y-axis from the graph, the drain
resistances are calculated.

(v) To obtain the transfer characteristics VDS is kept constant, and varying
VGS, the corresponding values of ID is noted down.
(vi) The graph is drawn the VVGS-X-axis, ID-Y-axis.
(vii) From the graph, the transconductance and the principle of pinch off’s voltages
are calculated.
(viii) Repeat the steps for different constant values of VDS.
Applications:
The junction field effect transistor (JFET) is used as a constant current source. The JFET is
used as a buffer amplifier The JFET is used as high impedance wide band amplifier. The
JFET is used
as a voltage variable resistor (VVR) or voltage development resistor (VDR)

INFERENCE

(i) Drain Resistance (rd)=

(ii) Transconductance (gm)=

(iii) Amplification factor(µ)=

RESULT:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF CHARACTERISTICS OF UJT
 Ex. No: 7(a) CHARACTERISTICS OF UJT AND GENERATION
Date : OF SAWTOOTH SIGNAL

AI
M: (i) To obtain the V-I characteristics of a UJT and to plot the characteristics.
(ii) To construct the UJT oscillator and obtain the characteristics

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE/TYPE QUANTITY

NAME
1. UJT 2N2646 1
2. Ammeter ( (0-30mA)MC 1
3. Voltmeter (0-30V)MC 2
4. Resistor 1kΩ 1
5. Bread board - 1
6. RPS (0-30V) 1
7. Connecting wires - Few
8. Resistor 1kΩ 2

Formula Used
Vp VBB
VD
Vp VD

VBB

 - Intrinsic Stand-off Ratio

VP – Peak Voltage
VD = Voltage drop
VBB = Voltage across Base Terminal

THEORY:
A Uni-Junction Transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only
one junction. The UJT Uni- Junction Transistor (UJT) has three terminals emitter (E) and two
bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. The emitter is of
p-type and it is heavily doped. The UJT, is a simple device that is essentially a bar of N type
semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere along its
length. The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a
potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately
one diode
TABULATION:

S.No VBB VBB

1= 2=
VE(V) IE(mA) VE(V) IE(mA)
voltage above the voltage at the point where the P diffusion (emitter) is, current will begin to
flow from the emitter into the base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the
additional current (actually charges in the base region) causes (conductivity modulation) which
reduces the resistance of the portion of the base between the emitter junction and the B2
terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter junction is more forward biased,
and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter
terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits.

PROCEDURE
Characteristics of UJT
1. Identify the terminals of the transistor given and set up the circuit on breadboard as
shown in figure.
2. Wire the circuit as shown in figure. By keeping the Base – Base voltage (VBB) constant
and varying the Emitter Voltage ammeter readings are noted down.
3. The above procedure shall be repeated for different VBB and current readings can
be taken.
4. VI characteristics curves were drawn.
Applications:
The most common application of a unijunction transistor is as a triggering device for SCR's
and Triacs but other UJT applications include saw-toothed generators, simple oscillators,
phase control, and timing circuits. The simplest of all UJT circuits is the Relaxation Oscillator
producing non-sinusoidal waveforms.

Inference
Peak Voltage =

Valley Voltage =

Intrinsic Standoff Ratio =

RESULT
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR

MODEL GRAPH
 Ex. No: 7(b)
GENERATION OF SAWTOOTH WAVEFORM
Date : USING UJT

AIM:
To construct a relaxation oscillator using UJT, to measure the frequency of oscillation

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE/TYPE QUANTITY

NAME
1. UJT 2N2646 1
2 Resistor 1kΩ, 2
33 kΩ 1
Capacitor 0.01µF 1
3. Bread board - 1
4. RPS (0-30V) 1
5. Connecting wires - Few
6. CRO

THEORY
UJT saw tooth generator (relaxation oscillator) is a type of RC (Resistor - Capacitor)
oscillator where the active element is a UJT (Uni-Junction Transistor). UJT is an excellent switch
with switching times in the order of nano seconds. It has a negative resistance region in the
characteristics and can be easily employed in relaxation oscillators. The UJT relaxation
oscillator is called so because the timing interval is set up by the charging of a capacitor and the
timing interval is ceased by the rapid discharge of the same capacitor.
The UJT has negative resistance characteristic, because of this character the UJT provides
trigger pulse. Any one of the three terminals can be taken for triggering pulse. The UJT can
be used as relaxation oscillator i.e. it produces non-sinusoidal waves. First the capacitor ‘C’
starts charging through the resistor R when VBB is switched on. During the charging of the
capacitor, the voltage across it increases exponentially until it reaches to the peak point voltage
VP. Up to now, the UJT is in off state, i.e non-conducting state at which RB1 value is high.
When the voltage across the capacitor reaches to peak point voltage (VP) then, UJT comes
into conducting state as the junction
is forward biased and RB1 falls to low value (50_). Then the capacitor ‘C’ quickly
discharges through UJT that means the discharging time is very less as the capacitor
discharges through the low resistance UJT. When the voltage across the capacitor decreases to
valley point voltage (VV) then the UJT shifts to off state and once again the capacitor gets
charged through the resistor R and this process is repeated. This generates saw-tooth wave
form across the capacitor which can be viewed on the CRO screen.
PROCEDURE

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. Positive biasing voltage is given to the Emitter and Base-2 terminal.
3. The charging and discharging time of capacitor is observed from the output waveform
of CRO.
4. Positive output waveform of B1 and B2 are obtained.

Outcomes:
Students are able to obtain saw tooth waveform is generated using UJT relaxation oscillator.

Applications:
The most common application of a unijunction transistor is as a triggering device for SCR's
and Triacs but other UJT applications include sawtoothed generators, simple oscillators,
phase control, and timing circuits. The simplest of all UJT circuits is the Relaxation Oscillator
producing non-sinusoidal waveforms.

INFERNECE

Time period of the sawtooth

waveform=Frequency of sawtooth

waveform

RESULT
Circuit Diagram of Common Emitter Amplifier

MODEL GRAPH:
 Ex. No: 8 DESIGN AND FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Date : CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON
EMITTER CONFIGURATION

AIM:

To design and study the frequency response characteristics of common Emitter configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO Apparatus Name Range/Type Quantity

1. CRO - 1
2. RPS(Dual) (0-30v) 1
3. Signal generator (0-30MHZ) 1
4. Transistor BC107 1
5. Resistor 1
6. Capacitor 10µF,2.2uF, 15uF, 1
7. Breadboard - 1
8. Connecting wires - few

FORMULA USED:

Gain in dB = 20log10 ( Vo )
Vin
THEORY
The CE amplifier provides high gain &wide frequency response. The emitter lead is
common to both input & output circuits and is grounded. The Emitter-Base circuit is forward
biased. The collector current is controlled by the Base current rather than emitter current. The
input signal is applied to base terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken across
collector terminal. A very small change in base current produces a much larger change in
collector current. When +VE half-cycle is fed to the input circuit, it opposes the forward bias of
the circuit which causes the collector current to decrease, it decreases the voltage more –VE.
Thus when input cycle varies through a -VE half-cycle, increases the forward bias of the circuit,
which causes the collector current to increases thus the output signal is common emitter
amplifier is in out of phase with the input signal. The input AC signal is applied across the base-
emitter terminals and the output signal is taken across the collector – emitter terminals. The
emitter base junction of a
Tabulation for Voltage Shunt Amplifier without Feedback Vin = 20 mV

Input signal Output voltage(Vo) Gain(A) in dB

S.No. frequency in in
A=(20 log
Hz
Volt (Vo/Vin))
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

BJT Pin Diagram

transistor is forward biased by the V BB supply. The collector base junction is reverse biased
by the VCC supply.
Each capacitor acts like a switch, the band width of the amplifier is calculated from the
graph using the expression, 3 dB Bandwidth, BW=f2-f1
Where,
f1 is lower cut-off frequency of CE amplifier,
and f2i s upper cut-off
cut frequency of CE
amplifier
current Because of this, a blocking
which is open to a direct current but shorted to an alternating current.
current This action isolates DC bias from an AC signal in the ircuit
capacitor blocks the direct current. ircuit.
A common emitter amplifier has the following important characteristics
Its input resistance is in the range of 1 kΩ to 2 kΩ, which is considered to be moderately low
Its output resistance is about 50 kΩ and is considered to be moderately
large. It produces very large power gain and is of the order of 10000 or so
It produces phase reversal of the input signal.
The common emitter amplifier is the most widely used amplifier of its large voltage and power
gains. In addition to this, its input and output resistances are suitable for most of the applications.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set Input voltage at a constant voltage using signal generator.
3. Vary the frequency from 1 kHz to 1 MHz and corresponding output voltage is noted.
noted
4. Plot the frequency response by varying the input frequency n the output voltage.
DESIGN

ASSUMPTION: VCC = 12 V, IC= 2 mA, β = 100

By Kirchhoff’s Voltage law Z

X  i
VCC  IC RC VCE  IE RE C1 10

V 12 Zi  R1 R2 hie
For faithful amplification V  cc   6V
CE 2 2 Z  47x103 10x103 1.5
i
IE  IC  2 mA
Zi  1.026 k 
V VCE 12  6
RC RE  CC = -3 = 3 kΩ
Z
IC 2x10 X  i  100
C1 10
RE is 20% of (RC+RE) 1
X C1
R  0.2 x 3x103 600 2 fC1
E

Choose RE = 560 Ω or 680 Ω C1 = 15µF

Rc = 3000 – 680 = 2320 Ω R
X  E  68
Choose RC = 2.2 kΩ CE 10
V  I R  2x10-3x680=1.36V 1
EE E E C   22µF
E
2 f x 68
VBB  0.7 1.36  2.06V
R2
V V
BB CC R  R
1 2

Choose R2 = 10 kΩ
10x103
2.06  12x
R110x103

R1 = 48.25 kΩ

Choose R1 = 47 kΩ
Application:
The common emitter circuit is popular because it's well-suited for voltage amplification,
especially at low frequencies. Common-emitter amplifiers are also used in radio frequency
transceiver circuits. Common emitter configuration commonly used in low-noise amplifiers

RESULT
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 Ex. No: 9 (a)
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
Date :
AIM:
To design and setup an RC phase shift oscillator using BJT & to observe the sinusoidal
output waveform.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO Apparatus Name Range/Type Quantity

1. Transistor BC 547 1
2. Resistor 47kΩ,10 kΩ,2.2 kΩ,680 Ω One from each
3. Resistor 4.7 kΩ 3
4. Capacitor 1μF,22 μF One from each
5. Capacitor 0.01 μF 3
6. CRO - -
7. RPS (0-30v) 1
8. Bread board - 1
9. Connecting wires - Few

FORMULA USED:
1
Output frequency f0 = 2πRC√6

THEORY:
An oscillator is an electronic circuit for generating an AC signal voltage with a DC
supply as the only input requirement. The frequency of the generated signal is decided by the
circuit elements used. An oscillator requires an amplifier, a frequency selective network and
a positive feedback from the output to the input. The Barkhausen criterion for sustained
oscillation is Aβ = 1 where A is the gain of the amplifier and β is the feedback factor

(gain).The unity gain means signal is in phase. (If the signal is 1800 out of phase and gain will
be -1). RC-Phase shift Oscillator has a CE amplifier followed by three sections of RC phase
shift feed-back Networks. The output of the last stage is return to the input of the amplifier.
The values of R and C are chosen such that the phase shift of each RC section is 60º.
 Thus The RC ladder network produces a total phase shift of 180º between its input and
output voltage for the given frequency. Since CE Amplifier produces 180 º phases shift. The total
phase shift from the base of the transistor around the circuit and back to the base will be exactly
360º or 0º. This satisfies the Barkhausen condition for sustaining oscillations and total loop
gain of this circuit is greater than or equal to 1, this condition used to generate the sinusoidal
oscillations.
MODEL GRAPH:
PROCEDURE:
1. Identify the pin details of BC107 Transistor (or equivalent silicon Transistor such as BC
108/547) and test it using a millimeter. Set up the circuit on bread board as shown in fig.
2. A 12v supply voltage is given by using regulated power supply & output is taken
from collector of the transistor.
3. By using CRO the output time period & voltage are noted.
4. Plot the readings curves on a single graph sheet.

Outcome:
On completion of the experiment, student will be able to:
1. calculate time constant for any circuit.
2. calculate the frequency of oscillation of tuned circuits.

Application:
Local oscillator for synchronous receivers, study purposes, musical instruments.

INFERENCE
Theoretical output frequency= ............. Hz
Practical output frequency = .............Hz

RESULT
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF LC OSCILLATOR – COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
 Ex. No: 9 (b)
LC OSCILLATOR
Date :

AIM:
To design and setup an LC oscillator using BJT & to observe the sinusoidal output waveform.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO Apparatus Name Range/Type Quantity

1. Transistor BC 107 1
2. Resistor 47kΩ,10 kΩ,2.2 kΩ,680 Ω One from each
3. Resistor 4.7 kΩ 3
4. Capacitor 0.1μF,22 μF, 0.01 μF One from each
5. Inductor Decade 3
6. CRO - -
7. RPS (0-30v) 1
8. Bread board - 1
9. Connecting wires - Few

FORMULAE USED

1
fo  C1.C2
2 Ceq .L CeqC  C
1 2

THEORY

If gain A of the amplifier is just sufficient to overcome the attenuator β of the β -

network. We get sinusoidal oscillations. Mathematically If Aβ is for greater than 1 square
wave results in however, if Aβ is less than 1 no oscillations will occur. The Colpitts and
Hartley Oscillator is a LC oscillator. Generally, LC oscillators are designed to operate in the
radio – frequency range above 1MHz however, they can also be designed to produce
oscillations in the low audio – frequency range. But for low frequency operation, the size of
the inductors to be used become larger and larger as the frequency becomes smaller and
smaller and this puts a limit on the low frequency range of oscillators employing LC –
coupling network.
MODEL GRAPH:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. For the Colpitts oscillator adjust the capacitance in the tank circuit to get a sinusoidal signal
of desired frequency
3. Plot the output obtained in the linear graph.

Outcome:
On completion of the experiment, student will be able to:
1. analyze tank circuit.
2. Calculate frequency of oscillation of tuned circuits.

Application:
Local oscillator for synchronous receivers, study purposes, musical instruments.

INFERENCE
Theoretical output frequency= ............. Hz
Practical output frequency = .............Hz

RESULT
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT FILTER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER

TABULATION

S.No Wavefor Amplitude (Volts) Time Period

m (ms)
1. Input Waveform

2. Output Waveform without filter

3. Output Waveform with filter

 Ex. No: 10
DESIGN OF HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS
Date :

AIM
To construct half wave and full wave rectifier circuits and to observe the input and
output waveforms with and without filter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Name of he Apparatus Range Quantity

S.No
1. PN junction diode IN4001 4
2. Resistor 2.2kΩ 1
3. Capacitor 100μF 1
4. Breadboard - 1
5. Single phase Transformer 230V/18V 1
6. CRO 1
7. Connecting wires - as required

THEORY
The electric power available is usually an ac supply, because of the reasons associated
with economics of generation and transmission. But there are many applications where dc supply
is needed. When such a dc supply is required, the mains ac supply is rectified by using diodes.
An electronic circuit that converts ac voltage into unidirectional voltage is called rectifier.
Rectifiers are classified depending upon the period of conduction as half wave rectifier and full
wave rectifier.

The ac supply to be rectified is applied through a transformer. The use of transformer

permits two advantages. Firstly it steps the line voltage down to safer and lower levels that are
more suitable for use with diodes, transistors and other semiconductor devices. Secondly the
transformer isolates the rectifier circuit from power line and thus reduces the risk of electric
shock.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT FILTER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER

TABULATION

S.No Description Amplitude Time Period (ms)

(Volts)
1. Input Waveform

2. Output Waveform without

filter
3. Output Waveform with filter
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
The half wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into pulsating dc voltage using only one
half cycle of the applied ac voltage. During the positive half cycle of the input signal, the anode
becomes positive with respect to the cathode. Thus, the diode is forward biased and hence it
conducts current. During the negative half cycle of the input signal, the anode becomes negative
with respect to the cathode. Under this condition, the diode is reverse biased and it conducts no
current. Therefore, current flows through the diode during positive half cycle of input signal only
and it is blocked during the negative half cycles. In this way, current flows through the load
always in the same direction. Hence, pulsating dc output is obtained across the load resistance.
The pulsating dc in the output is smoothened with the help of filter circuit.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

The full wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half
cycles of the applied ac voltage. The bridge rectifier has four diodes to form a bridge. During the
positive half cycleof the input AC voltage, D1 and D3 are forward biased and hence they conduct
current. During the negative half cycle, D2 and D4 are forward biased and they conduct current.
Therefore, current flows through the diodes during both the half cycles of input ac voltage in
same direction. In this way, current flows through the load resistance in the same direction.
Hence, pulsating dc output is obtained across the load resistance. The pulsating dc output is
smoothened with the help of filter circuit.

PROCEDURE

1. The connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The step down ac voltage from the secondary of the transformer is measured using
CRO. This is the input voltage for the rectifier.
3. Connect the CRO across the resistor to view the pulsating dc output.
4. Note down the amplitude and frequency of the output waveform and plot the waveforms.
5. Connect a capacitor filter across the resistor.
6. Note down the amplitude and frequency of the output waveform with filter and plot the
waveforms.
VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS WITH AND WITHOUT FILTER - HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS WITH AND WITHOUT FILTER - FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

Without Capacitor:
1. Test your transformer: Give 230V, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the transformer
and observe the AC waveform of rated value without any distortion at the secondary of the
transformer.
2. Connect the half wave rectifier as shown in figure.
3. Measure the Vdc & Vac using DC and AC Voltmeters.
4. Calculate the ripple factor r = Vac / Vdc
5. Compare the theoretical ripple factor with the practical ripple factor.

With capacitor:
1. Connect the half wave rectifier with filter circuit as shown in fig.
2. Connect CRO across load.
3. Keep the CRO switch in ground mode and observe the horizontal line and adjust it to
the X- axis.
4. Switch the CRO into DC mode and observe the waveform.

Half Wave Rectifier

V
Average  m
DCVoltageVDC 
2 2
Vrms Vac Vdc

RMSVoltage Vm
Vrms 2
For Practical
Ripple Factor   without filter
Vac
Vdc
For Theoretical
V2
Ripple Factor   rms
Vdc2 1
1 with filter
Ripple Factor  
2 3 fCRL
Full Wave Rectifier
2Vm
Average 

DCVoltageVDC
 Vac 2 Vdc2
RMSVoltage Vm Vrms 
Vrms 2
V
Ripple Factor   ac V2 without filter

Vdc2 1
rms
Vdc
1
Ripple Factor   with filter
4 3 fCRL
MODEL CALCULATION
Half Wave Rectifier

HWR Vdc Vrm Ripple Factor

s
(v) Without Filter With Filter
(v)
Theoretical

Practical

Full Wave Rectifier

FWR Vdc Vrm Ripple Factor

s
(v) Without Filter With Filter
(v)
Theoretical

Practical

1. .

Application:
Power supplies and as detectors of radio signals

RESULT
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
LOW PASS FILTER

2kΩR

+ µF
+
AFO CRO
- -

HIGH PASS FILTER

0.01µF

+ +
2kΩ
- -
 Ex. No: 11
REALIZATION OF PASSIVE FILTER
Date :

AIM
:
To realize the low pass filter and high pass filter and to obtain experimentally its frequency
plot. response

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1. AFO 0-1KHZ - 1
2. RESISTOR 2KΩ - 2
3. CAPACITOR 0.01µF 2
4. BREAD BOARD 1
5. CONNECTING AS REQUIRED
WIRES

THEORY
Passive filters are made up of passive components such as resistors, capacitors and
inductors and have no amplifying elements (transistors, op-amps, etc.) so have no signal gain,
therefore their output level is always less than the input. At low frequencies the reactance of the
capacitor will be very large than the resistors resistive value. So, the signal’s voltage potential
across capacitor will be much larger than the voltage drop across the resistor. In higher
frequencies exact opposite thing will happen. Resistor’s resistive value gets higher and due to that
with the effect of capacitor’s reactance the voltage across capacitor became smaller. Filters are so
named according to the frequency range of signals that they allow to pass through them, while
blocking or “attenuating” the rest. The most commonly used filter designs are: The Low Pass
Filter – the low pass filter only allows low frequency signals from 0Hz to its cut-off frequency,
ƒc point to pass while blocking those any higher. The High Pass Filter – the high pass filter only
allows high frequency signals from its cut-off frequency, ƒc point and higher to infinity to pass
through while blocking those anylower.
FORMULA USED:
Voltage gain:
Av=|20 log10 (vo/vin) |
db Cut off frequency fc = 1 /2πRC Hz
TABULATION:
Low pass filter Vin= Vpp; fL= kHZ

S.NO Frequency(kHZ) VO(Volts) AV(Volts)

High pass filter Vin=3 pp; fH= kHZ

S.NO Frequency(kHZ) VO(Volts) AV(Volts)

 PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Input supply is set as 2Vpp using AFO.
3. By varying the frequencies, the output voltage is noted using CRO.
4. Readings are tabulated and the voltage gain is calculated.
5. Graph is drawn between frequency and voltage gain.

RESULT: