‭THE‬ ‭ORIGIN‬ ‭AND‬ ‭DEVELOPMENT‬‭OF‬‭EQUITY‬‭UNDER‬‭THE‬‭ENGLISH‬‭COMMON‬

‭LAW LEGAL SYSTEM: AN INTRODUCTION‬

‭Amr Ibn Munir‬‭*‬

‭Abstract‬

‭This‬ ‭paper‬ ‭discusses‬ ‭the‬ ‭origin‬ ‭and‬ ‭nature‬ ‭of‬‭equity‬‭before‬‭the‬‭emergence‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Common‬‭Law‬

‭Legal‬ ‭System.‬ ‭It‬ ‭briefly‬ ‭discusses‬ ‭the‬ ‭emergence‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭common‬ ‭law‬ ‭legal‬ ‭system‬ ‭and‬‭how‬‭its‬
‭various‬ ‭problems.‬ ‭It‬ ‭discusses‬ ‭how‬ ‭equity‬ ‭was‬ ‭the‬ ‭best‬ ‭alternative‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭common‬ ‭law‬ ‭legal‬
‭system.‬‭It‬‭discusses‬‭the‬‭conflict‬‭between‬‭equity‬‭and‬‭common‬‭law‬‭and‬‭how‬‭it‬‭came‬‭to‬‭end.‬‭Lastly,‬
‭it‬ ‭briefly‬ ‭discusses‬ ‭some‬ ‭equitable‬ ‭maxims‬ ‭developed‬ ‭by‬ ‭equity‬‭that‬‭are‬‭still‬‭in‬‭use‬‭today.‬‭The‬
‭main‬ ‭findings‬ ‭of‬ ‭this‬ ‭paper‬ ‭are‬ ‭that‬ ‭equity‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭set‬ ‭of‬ ‭principles‬ ‭that‬ ‭is‬ ‭applied‬ ‭to‬ ‭avoid‬ ‭the‬
‭potential‬‭injustice‬ ‭caused‬‭by‬‭the‬‭strict‬‭application‬‭of‬‭a‬‭rigid‬‭law.‬‭It‬‭existed‬‭in‬‭theory‬‭and‬‭law‬‭even‬
‭before‬‭the‬ ‭emergence‬‭of‬‭common‬‭law.‬‭Common‬‭law‬‭was‬‭the‬‭result‬‭of‬‭the‬‭magistrate’s‬‭application‬
‭of‬‭old‬ ‭customs‬‭and‬‭the‬‭emergence‬‭of‬‭stare‬‭decisis‬‭.‬‭It‬‭had‬‭its‬‭own‬‭problems‬‭in‬‭terms‬‭of‬‭rigidness‬
‭in‬ ‭both‬ ‭substantial‬ ‭law‬ ‭and‬ ‭procedure.‬ ‭Equity‬ ‭came‬ ‭as‬ ‭an‬ ‭alternative‬ ‭to‬ ‭common‬ ‭law‬‭and‬‭was‬
‭applied‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬ ‭result‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Roman‬‭Catholic‬‭Chancellor‬‭who‬‭heard‬‭these‬‭cases‬‭and‬‭applied‬‭equity‬
‭based‬ ‭on‬ ‭Roman‬ ‭Law.‬ ‭Ultimately,‬ ‭Courts‬ ‭of‬ ‭Chancery‬ ‭were‬ ‭developed‬ ‭under‬ ‭the‬ ‭Chancellor‬
‭which‬ ‭applied‬ ‭equity‬ ‭rather‬ ‭than‬ ‭common‬‭law.‬‭There‬‭existed‬‭a‬‭lot‬‭of‬‭conflict‬‭between‬‭both‬‭the‬
‭Common‬ ‭Law‬ ‭Courts‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭Chancery‬ ‭Courts.‬‭This‬‭conflict‬‭was‬‭finally‬‭settled‬‭after‬‭the‬‭King‬
‭ruled‬ ‭that‬ ‭equity‬ ‭was‬ ‭to‬ ‭prevail‬ ‭in‬ ‭any‬ ‭conflict‬ ‭centuries‬ ‭later‬ ‭before‬ ‭ultimately‬ ‭having‬ ‭both‬
‭merge‬‭into‬‭one‬‭Court‬‭which‬ ‭applied‬‭both‬‭common‬‭law‬‭and‬‭equity‬‭during‬‭the‬‭19‬‭th‬‭Century.‬‭Lastly,‬
‭there‬‭are‬‭some‬‭major‬‭equitable‬‭maxims‬‭that‬‭were‬‭developed‬‭by‬‭the‬‭Chancery‬‭Courts‬‭that‬‭are‬‭still‬
‭in use today as well. The methodology used for this work is doctrinal.‬

‭Keywords:‬

‭Equity, Common Law, British Legal System, Civil Law, Maxims.‬

‭1. Introduction‬
‭This‬ ‭paper‬ ‭discusses‬ ‭the‬ ‭origin‬ ‭and‬ ‭history‬ ‭of‬ ‭equity‬ ‭before‬ ‭the‬ ‭emergence‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭English‬
‭Common‬ ‭Law‬ ‭legal‬ ‭system;‬ ‭it‬ ‭discusses‬ ‭the‬ ‭origin‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭common‬ ‭law‬ ‭legal‬ ‭system‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬
‭development‬ ‭of‬ ‭equity‬ ‭under‬ ‭it;‬ ‭it‬ ‭discusses‬ ‭the‬ ‭problems‬ ‭of‬ ‭common‬ ‭law‬ ‭and‬ ‭how‬ ‭these‬
‭problems‬‭were‬‭overcome‬ ‭by‬‭equity;‬‭it‬‭discusses‬‭how‬‭there‬‭was‬‭a‬‭conflict‬‭between‬‭the‬‭Common‬
‭Law‬‭Courts‬‭and‬‭the‬ ‭Chancery‬‭Courts‬‭which‬‭was‬‭settled‬‭with‬‭equity’s‬‭victory‬‭and‬‭then‬‭the‬‭merger‬
‭of‬‭both‬‭Courts‬ ‭centuries‬‭later;‬‭it‬‭discusses‬‭some‬‭maxims‬‭developed‬‭by‬‭equity‬‭which‬‭are‬‭still‬‭very‬
‭well in use today;‬

‭2. Equity before English Common Law‬

‭Equity‬‭refers‬‭to‬‭a‬‭set‬‭of‬‭principles,‬‭a‬‭source‬‭of‬‭jurisdiction,‬‭a‬‭body‬‭of‬‭authoritative‬‭doctrines‬‭and,‬
‭in‬‭some‬‭places,‬‭an‬‭institution‬‭of‬‭adjudication‬‭distinct‬‭from‬‭legal‬‭institutions.‬‭1‬‭It‬‭is‬‭a‬‭charitable‬‭and‬
‭just‬ ‭principle‬ ‭that‬ ‭allows‬ ‭for‬ ‭the‬ ‭avoidance‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭strict‬ ‭application‬ ‭of‬ ‭rigid‬ ‭law‬ ‭that‬ ‭would‬
‭administer‬‭injustice‬‭rather‬‭than‬‭justice‬‭to‬‭the‬‭concerned‬‭parties‬‭in‬‭the‬‭instant‬‭case.‬‭2‬‭This‬‭principle‬
‭has‬‭existed‬‭in‬‭various‬‭different‬‭ancient‬‭cultures‬‭in‬‭various‬‭different‬‭terminologies.‬‭3‬ ‭Equity‬‭in‬‭fact‬
‭has‬‭its‬‭origin‬‭all‬‭the‬‭way‬‭back‬‭to‬‭the‬‭ancient‬‭Code‬‭of‬‭Hammurabi,‬‭which‬‭was‬‭although‬‭known‬‭for‬
‭its‬ ‭strict‬ ‭adherence‬ ‭to‬ ‭principle‬‭of‬‭‘an‬‭eye‬‭for‬‭an‬‭eye‬‭and‬‭a‬‭tooth‬‭for‬‭a‬‭tooth’,‬‭there‬‭were‬‭certain‬
‭legal‬‭provisions‬‭incorporated‬‭within‬‭which‬‭analogously‬‭resembled‬‭equitable‬‭reliefs.‬‭4‬‭The‬‭concept‬
‭of‬‭equity‬‭is‬‭further‬‭found‬‭in‬‭various‬‭Sumerian-Assyrio-Chaldean‬‭tablets‬‭setting‬‭forth‬‭the‬‭law‬‭as‬‭it‬
‭existed‬ ‭a‬ ‭little‬ ‭later‬ ‭than‬ ‭the‬ ‭period‬ ‭of‬ ‭Hammurabi,‬ ‭particularly‬ ‭incorporating‬ ‭a‬‭principle‬‭of‬‭the‬
‭equitable‬ ‭maxim,‬ ‭‘he‬ ‭who‬ ‭comes‬ ‭to‬ ‭equity‬ ‭must‬ ‭come‬‭with‬‭clean‬‭hands’‬‭and‬‭also‬‭the‬‭equitable‬
‭right‬ ‭of‬ ‭an‬ ‭appeal‬ ‭to‬ ‭a‬ ‭higher‬ ‭Court.‬‭5‬ ‭These‬ ‭Babylon‬ ‭codes‬ ‭would‬ ‭be‬ ‭preserved‬ ‭and‬ ‭further‬
‭developed‬ ‭by‬ ‭the‬ ‭Hebrews‬ ‭into‬ ‭the‬ ‭famous‬ ‭Mosaic‬ ‭Code‬ ‭who‬ ‭incorporated‬ ‭various‬ ‭moral‬
‭principles derived from their religious doctrine.‬‭6‬

‭Equity‬‭is‬‭also‬‭present‬‭in‬‭Aristotle’s‬‭jurisprudence‬‭as‬‭epieikeia‬‭and‬‭epiekis‬‭in‬‭his‬‭various‬‭treatises‬
‭as‬‭a‬‭source‬‭of‬‭moral‬‭virtue‬‭which‬‭serves‬‭a‬‭specific‬‭purpose,‬‭which‬‭is‬‭to‬‭‘rectify’‬‭the‬‭law.‬‭7‬‭Aristotle‬
‭was‬ ‭particularly‬ ‭concerned‬ ‭that‬ ‭the‬ ‭law‬ ‭was‬ ‭far‬ ‭too‬ ‭rigid‬ ‭and‬ ‭absolute‬ ‭in‬ ‭its‬ ‭administration‬ ‭of‬
‭justice,‬ ‭it‬ ‭was‬ ‭much‬ ‭too‬ ‭formal‬ ‭and‬ ‭thus‬ ‭needed‬ ‭certain‬ ‭exceptions‬ ‭for‬ ‭certain‬ ‭cases‬ ‭where‬ ‭the‬
‭absolute‬ ‭application‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭law‬ ‭would‬ ‭prove‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭an‬ ‭administration‬ ‭of‬ ‭injustice‬ ‭rather‬ ‭than‬
‭justice.‬‭8‬ ‭Aristotle‬‭gives‬‭the‬‭example‬‭of‬‭a‬‭person‬‭brushing‬‭a‬‭ring‬‭on‬‭another‬‭person‬‭coming‬‭within‬
‭the‬ ‭definition‬‭of‬‭assault‬‭as‬‭per‬‭the‬‭law,‬‭in‬‭which‬‭case,‬‭if‬‭he‬‭is‬‭charged‬‭with‬‭assault,‬‭it‬‭would‬‭not‬
‭be‬ ‭proper‬ ‭administration‬ ‭of‬ ‭justice,‬ ‭the‬ ‭judge‬ ‭should‬ ‭instead‬ ‭endeavour‬ ‭to‬ ‭see‬ ‭whether‬ ‭such‬ ‭a‬
‭case‬ ‭can‬‭come‬‭within‬‭certain‬‭exceptions‬‭where‬‭the‬‭strict‬‭application‬‭of‬‭law‬‭need‬‭not‬‭be‬‭applied.‬‭9‬
‭Hence,‬ ‭he‬‭is‬‭against‬‭the‬‭literal‬‭or‬‭strict‬‭universal‬‭application‬‭of‬‭law‬‭where‬‭the‬‭law‬‭is‬‭taken‬‭even‬
‭literally for even the smallest cases as is seen in the example discussed hereinabove.‬

‭Thus,‬ ‭rather‬‭than‬ ‭justice‬‭being‬‭carried‬‭out,‬‭there‬‭will‬‭only‬‭be‬‭injustice‬‭and‬‭inconvenience‬‭being‬

‭carried‬ ‭out‬ ‭and‬ ‭so,‬ ‭the‬ ‭judges‬ ‭should‬ ‭aim‬‭to‬‭make‬‭exceptions‬‭in‬‭such‬‭cases‬‭so‬‭as‬‭to‬‭make‬‭sure‬
‭that‬‭justice‬‭is‬‭being‬ ‭carried‬‭out‬‭properly.‬‭It‬‭should‬‭also‬‭be‬‭noted‬‭that‬‭Aristotle‬‭does‬‭not‬‭mean‬‭to‬
‭fill‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭gaps‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭law,‬ ‭but‬ ‭rather,‬ ‭he‬ ‭means‬ ‭that‬ ‭the‬ ‭law‬ ‭needs‬ ‭proper‬ ‭rectification‬ ‭for‬ ‭its‬
‭certain‬‭deficiencies,‬‭that‬ ‭one‬‭must‬‭go‬‭beyond‬‭the‬‭codified‬‭statute‬‭or‬‭‘written‬‭law’‬‭to‬‭apply‬‭proper‬
‭justice‬‭in‬‭certain‬‭cases‬‭where‬‭strict‬‭adherence‬‭to‬‭law‬‭falls‬‭short.‬‭10‬ ‭Hence,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭quite‬‭similar‬‭to‬‭the‬
‭English principle of equity as we will discuss hereinbelow.‬

‭Equity‬‭was‬‭also‬‭present‬‭within‬‭ancient‬‭Roman‬‭law‬‭as‬‭aequum/aequitas‬‭,‬‭initially‬‭meaning‬‭level‬‭or‬
‭equal.‬‭11‬ ‭It‬‭provides‬‭a‬‭basis‬‭for‬‭the‬‭analogical‬‭extension‬‭of‬‭law‬‭grounded‬‭in‬‭imaginative‬‭(if‬‭limited)‬
‭empathy.‬‭12‬ ‭Hence,‬‭equity‬‭was‬‭used‬‭as‬‭a‬‭means‬‭of‬‭moderating‬‭the‬‭law‬‭and‬‭apply‬‭natural‬‭justice‬‭to‬
‭reach a fair and just conclusion to cases.‬‭13‬

‭Under‬‭ancient‬‭Chinese‬‭jurisprudence,‬‭equity‬‭existed‬‭under‬‭the‬‭principle‬‭of‬‭qingli‬‭,‬‭which‬‭refers‬‭to‬
‭compassion.‬‭14‬ ‭Similar‬‭to‬‭its‬‭western‬‭counterpart,‬‭any‬‭positive‬‭rule‬‭that‬‭was‬‭inconsistent‬‭would‬‭be‬
‭rejected‬ ‭in‬ ‭favour‬ ‭of‬ ‭it.‬‭15‬ ‭Under‬ ‭ancient‬ ‭Hindu‬ ‭Jurisprudence,‬ ‭equity‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬ ‭traced‬ ‭within‬ ‭the‬
‭Hindu‬‭law‬‭of‬‭Dharma‬‭,‬‭which‬‭has‬‭multiple‬‭definitions‬‭which‬‭include‬‭natural‬‭law,‬‭morality,‬‭justice,‬
‭virtue, moral law, duty among others.‬‭16‬

‭Under‬‭Islamic‬‭Law,‬‭there‬‭is‬‭a‬‭debate‬‭on‬‭whether‬‭istihsan‬‭is‬‭the‬‭Islamic‬‭equivalent‬‭of‬‭equity.‬‭17‬‭It‬‭is‬
‭a‬‭subsidiary‬‭source‬‭of‬‭Islamic‬‭law‬‭and‬‭a‬‭principle‬‭which‬‭was‬‭developed‬‭by‬‭the‬‭Hanafis‬‭to‬‭remove‬
‭the‬‭rigidity‬‭of‬‭law‬‭in‬‭certain‬‭situations.‬‭18‬ ‭It‬‭is‬‭designed‬‭to‬‭make‬‭up‬‭the‬‭defect‬‭in‬‭law‬‭owing‬‭to‬‭its‬
‭generality‬ ‭or‬ ‭to‬ ‭remove‬ ‭its‬‭rigidity.‬‭19‬ ‭According‬‭to‬‭Ahmed‬‭Hasan,‬‭there‬‭are‬‭situations‬‭in‬‭an‬‭ever‬
‭evolving‬‭human‬‭society‬‭which‬‭calls‬‭for‬‭a‬‭departure‬‭from‬‭the‬‭strict‬‭application‬‭of‬‭the‬‭law‬‭and‬‭thus,‬
‭in‬‭such‬‭a‬‭case,‬‭the‬‭jurist‬‭should‬‭be‬‭allowed‬‭leeway‬‭to‬‭depart‬‭from‬‭the‬‭established‬‭rules‬‭of‬‭law‬‭and‬
‭apply‬ ‭another‬ ‭principle‬ ‭keeping‬ ‭in‬ ‭mind‬ ‭public‬ ‭interest‬ ‭and‬ ‭human‬ ‭good.‬‭20‬ ‭Hence,‬ ‭istihsan‬
‭becomes‬‭a‬‭useful‬‭principle‬‭for‬‭legislating‬‭on‬‭fresh‬‭principles‬‭as‬‭it‬‭can‬‭be‬‭utilized‬‭for‬‭situations‬‭for‬
‭which‬ ‭one‬ ‭cannot‬ ‭find‬ ‭any‬ ‭principle‬ ‭or‬ ‭rule‬ ‭from‬ ‭the‬ ‭classical‬ ‭legal‬ ‭treatises.‬‭21‬ ‭This‬ ‭exposition‬
‭seems similar to the expositions of equity as discussed hereinabove.‬

‭Hence,‬‭we‬‭can‬‭see‬‭that‬‭the‬‭precept‬‭of‬‭equity‬‭has‬‭existed‬‭long‬‭ago‬‭in‬‭theory‬‭or‬‭as‬‭a‬‭principle‬‭of‬‭law‬
‭and‬ ‭it‬ ‭more‬ ‭or‬ ‭less‬ ‭refers‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬‭principle‬‭of‬‭departing‬‭from‬‭the‬‭strict‬‭application‬‭of‬‭a‬‭particular‬
‭law‬ ‭in‬‭certain‬‭cases‬‭where‬‭it‬‭would‬‭cause‬‭injustice‬‭rather‬‭than‬‭justice‬‭and‬‭in‬‭order‬‭to‬‭combat‬‭this‬
‭and‬ ‭administer‬‭proper‬‭justice‬‭in‬‭such‬‭cases,‬‭one‬‭must‬‭apply‬‭a‬‭principle‬‭which‬‭is‬‭fair,‬‭just‬‭and‬‭will‬
‭administer justice in the instant case.‬
‭3. Origin and Development under Anglo Jurisprudence‬

‭To‬‭understand‬‭equity,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭important‬‭to‬‭discuss‬‭common‬‭law‬‭first.‬‭Common‬‭law‬‭can‬‭be‬‭described‬
‭as‬‭the‬‭judge-made‬‭law‬‭of‬‭England‬‭based‬‭on‬‭custom‬‭although‬‭it‬‭is‬‭disputed‬‭whether‬‭judges‬‭make‬
‭law‬ ‭or‬ ‭discover‬ ‭it.‬‭22‬ ‭After‬ ‭the‬ ‭Norman‬ ‭Conquest‬ ‭in‬ ‭1066,‬ ‭the‬ ‭first‬ ‭Norman‬ ‭King,‬ ‭William‬ ‭the‬
‭Conqueror‬‭set‬‭up‬‭the‬‭Curia‬‭Regis‬‭(the‬‭King’s‬‭Court)‬‭and‬‭appointed‬‭his‬‭own‬‭Judges.‬‭These‬‭Judges‬
‭were‬‭sent‬‭to‬‭other‬‭towns‬‭as‬‭well‬‭to‬‭decide‬‭cases‬‭that‬‭arose‬‭there.‬‭Overtime‬‭in‬‭the‬‭era‬‭of‬‭Henry‬‭II,‬
‭the‬ ‭visits‬ ‭became‬ ‭more‬ ‭and‬ ‭more‬ ‭regular‬‭and‬‭the‬‭Judges‬‭would‬‭travel‬‭all‬‭over‬‭the‬‭country‬‭from‬
‭London‬ ‭to‬ ‭decide‬ ‭cases.‬‭These‬‭judges‬‭would‬‭decide‬‭cases‬‭by‬‭local‬‭customs‬‭or‬‭old‬‭Anglo-Saxon‬
‭laws.‬‭It‬‭is‬‭believed,‬‭however,‬‭that‬‭the‬‭judges‬‭upon‬‭their‬‭return‬‭to‬‭London‬‭would‬‭discuss‬‭the‬‭cases‬
‭they‬‭decided‬‭and‬‭would‬‭discuss‬‭the‬‭best‬‭customs‬‭to‬‭be‬‭used‬‭by‬‭all‬‭of‬‭them‬‭should‬‭they‬‭encounter‬
‭similar‬‭cases‬‭later‬‭on.‬‭This‬‭had‬‭the‬‭intended‬‭effect‬‭of‬‭the‬‭law‬‭of‬‭England‬‭becoming‬‭more‬‭uniform‬
‭or‬‭‘common’.‬‭This‬‭is‬‭where‬‭the‬‭phrase‬‭“common‬‭law”‬‭seemed‬‭to‬‭have‬‭developed.‬‭The‬‭traveling‬
‭magistrates‬‭started‬‭the‬‭practice‬‭of‬‭deciding‬‭similar‬‭cases‬‭similarly‬‭and‬‭hence‬‭the‬‭doctrine‬‭of‬‭stare‬
‭decisis‬ ‭(let‬ ‭us‬ ‭stand‬ ‭by‬ ‭things‬ ‭decided)‬ ‭took‬ ‭birth‬ ‭which‬ ‭evolved‬ ‭into‬ ‭the‬ ‭concept‬ ‭of‬ ‭judicial‬
‭precedents and became the hallmark of so many legal systems today.‬‭23‬

‭We‬ ‭have‬ ‭already‬ ‭discussed‬ ‭what‬ ‭common‬ ‭law‬ ‭is‬ ‭and‬ ‭how‬ ‭it‬ ‭developed.‬ ‭Now‬‭let‬‭us‬‭discuss‬‭the‬
‭problems‬‭that‬‭it‬‭caused‬‭and‬‭how‬‭equity‬‭emerged‬‭as‬‭the‬‭answer‬‭to‬‭fill‬‭in‬‭the‬‭gaps‬‭in‬‭common‬‭law.‬
‭Common‬‭law‬‭was‬‭much‬‭too‬‭rigid‬‭in‬‭the‬‭early‬‭years.‬‭Only‬‭certain‬‭types‬‭of‬‭cases‬‭were‬‭recognized‬
‭and‬‭could‬‭be‬‭brought‬‭to‬‭the‬‭common‬‭law‬‭courts.‬‭A‬‭person‬‭could‬‭lose‬‭his‬‭case‬‭by‬‭a‬‭simple‬‭error‬‭in‬
‭the‬ ‭formalities!‬ ‭The‬ ‭only‬ ‭remedy‬ ‭common‬ ‭law‬‭could‬‭give‬‭to‬‭people‬‭was‬‭damages,‬‭which‬‭could‬
‭not‬ ‭always‬ ‭be‬ ‭the‬ ‭appropriate‬ ‭remedy‬ ‭for‬ ‭each‬ ‭and‬ ‭every‬ ‭case.‬ ‭Suppose,‬ ‭A‬ ‭trespasses‬ ‭into‬ ‭B’s‬
‭land‬ ‭and‬‭builds‬‭something‬‭there,‬‭should‬‭B‬‭approach‬‭the‬‭common‬‭law‬‭court,‬‭the‬‭only‬‭remedy‬‭the‬
‭common‬ ‭law‬ ‭court‬ ‭could‬ ‭give‬ ‭was‬ ‭ordering‬ ‭A‬ ‭to‬ ‭pay‬ ‭B‬ ‭in‬ ‭damages,‬ ‭which‬ ‭would‬ ‭be‬ ‭very‬
‭unsatisfactory‬ ‭for‬ ‭B.‬ ‭B‬ ‭would‬ ‭rather‬ ‭have‬ ‭the‬ ‭building‬ ‭that‬ ‭A‬ ‭built‬ ‭on‬ ‭his‬ ‭land‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭removed‬
‭rather‬ ‭than‬ ‭be‬ ‭paid‬ ‭in‬ ‭damages.‬ ‭This‬ ‭rigidness‬ ‭was‬ ‭the‬ ‭primary‬ ‭cause‬ ‭for‬ ‭concern‬ ‭among‬ ‭the‬
‭common‬ ‭folk‬ ‭of‬ ‭England‬ ‭who‬ ‭wished‬ ‭for‬ ‭far‬ ‭better‬ ‭justice‬ ‭than‬ ‭simply‬ ‭to‬‭be‬‭paid‬‭in‬‭damages‬
‭each‬‭and‬‭every‬ ‭time.‬‭Similarly,‬‭a‬‭case‬‭could‬‭only‬‭be‬‭registered‬‭if‬‭a‬‭certain‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭money‬‭was‬
‭paid‬‭to‬‭court’s‬ ‭staff‬‭first.‬‭In‬‭some‬‭cases,‬‭the‬‭money‬‭to‬‭be‬‭recovered‬‭was‬‭less‬‭than‬‭the‬‭amount‬‭to‬
‭be‬ ‭paid‬ ‭for‬ ‭the‬ ‭case‬‭to‬‭be‬‭registered.‬‭In‬‭such‬‭case‬‭the‬‭poor‬‭claimant‬‭had‬‭no‬‭choice‬‭but‬‭to‬‭forgo‬
‭registration‬‭of‬‭his‬ ‭case.‬‭When‬‭the‬‭case‬‭would‬‭be‬‭registered‬‭the‬‭common‬‭law‬‭court‬‭had‬‭no‬‭power‬
‭to‬‭force‬‭the‬ ‭respondent‬‭to‬‭appear‬‭before‬‭it.‬‭It‬‭was‬‭a‬‭common‬‭excuse‬‭for‬‭a‬‭respondent‬‭to‬‭say‬‭that‬
‭he‬‭was‬‭on‬‭a‬ ‭crusade‬‭and‬‭could‬‭not‬‭appear‬‭before‬‭the‬‭court.‬‭Bribery‬‭and‬‭corruption‬‭were‬‭common.‬
‭A‬‭litigant‬ ‭bringing‬‭the‬‭greatest‬‭number‬‭of‬‭witnesses‬‭would‬‭win‬‭the‬‭case‬‭and‬‭such‬‭witnesses‬‭were‬
‭available‬ ‭outside‬ ‭the‬ ‭court‬ ‭and‬ ‭would‬‭go‬‭with‬‭any‬‭litigant‬‭for‬‭money.‬‭In‬‭addition,‬‭the‬‭common‬
‭law‬ ‭court‬ ‭was‬‭using‬‭Latin‬‭as‬‭the‬‭language‬‭of‬‭the‬‭court‬‭and‬‭procedure‬‭and‬‭the‬‭common‬‭litigants‬
‭would‬‭not‬ ‭know‬‭about‬‭the‬‭conduct‬‭of‬‭the‬‭proceedings‬‭in‬‭the‬‭court.‬‭Common‬‭people‬‭were‬‭sick‬‭of‬
‭this‬ ‭system‬ ‭and‬ ‭they‬ ‭started‬ ‭approaching‬ ‭the‬ ‭King‬‭through‬‭application‬‭about‬‭their‬‭legal‬‭issues.‬
‭The‬‭King‬‭used‬ ‭to‬‭be‬‭a‬‭busy‬‭man‬‭and‬‭would‬‭simply‬‭pass‬‭on‬‭such‬‭an‬‭application‬‭to‬‭his‬‭Chancellor‬
‭who‬ ‭was‬ ‭the‬ ‭most‬ ‭religious‬ ‭person‬ ‭and‬ ‭was‬‭considered‬‭King’s‬‭link‬‭to‬‭God‬‭and‬‭“Keeper‬‭of‬‭the‬
‭King’s‬ ‭Conscience”.‬‭24‬‭He‬‭would‬‭quickly‬‭decide‬‭such‬‭cases‬‭according‬‭to‬‭equity‬‭(literally‬‭fairness).‬
‭While‬ ‭it‬ ‭literally‬‭means‬‭fairness,‬‭it‬‭has‬‭been‬‭defined‬‭as‬‭“in‬‭its‬‭broadest‬‭sense,‬‭equity‬‭is‬‭fairness.‬
‭As‬‭a‬‭legal‬ ‭system,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭a‬‭body‬‭of‬‭law‬‭that‬‭addresses‬‭concerns‬‭that‬‭fall‬‭outside‬‭the‬‭jurisdiction‬‭of‬
‭common‬ ‭law.‬ ‭Equity‬ ‭is‬ ‭also‬ ‭used‬ ‭to‬ ‭describe‬ ‭the‬‭money‬‭value‬‭of‬‭property‬‭in‬‭excess‬‭of‬‭claims,‬
‭liens,‬‭or‬‭mortgages‬ ‭on‬‭the‬‭property.”‬‭25‬‭Hence,‬‭a‬‭system‬‭that‬‭emerged‬‭by‬‭following‬‭fairness‬‭rather‬
‭than‬‭the‬‭strict‬‭and‬ ‭rigid‬‭tenants‬‭of‬‭the‬‭common‬‭law.‬‭Unlike‬‭the‬‭common‬‭law‬‭courts,‬‭this‬‭informal‬
‭but‬ ‭very‬ ‭quick‬ ‭adjudication‬‭system‬‭had‬‭no‬‭formalities‬‭and‬‭was‬‭without‬‭technicalities.‬‭It‬‭started‬
‭the‬ ‭practice‬ ‭of‬ ‭sending‬ ‭summons‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭respondent‬ ‭forcing‬ ‭him‬ ‭to‬ ‭appear‬ ‭before‬ ‭it.‬ ‭It‬ ‭used‬
‭English‬ ‭as‬‭the‬‭language‬ ‭for‬‭adjudication.‬‭Thus,‬‭the‬‭court‬‭was‬‭doing‬‭equity,‬‭justice,‬‭and‬‭fairness‬
‭and‬ ‭was‬ ‭known‬ ‭as‬‭the‬‭court‬ ‭of‬‭equity.‬‭It‬‭is‬‭on‬‭this‬‭basis‬‭that‬‭the‬‭system‬‭of‬‭equity‬‭evolved.‬‭The‬
‭Chancellor‬‭would‬‭decide‬‭cases‬ ‭on‬‭the‬‭principles‬‭of‬‭natural‬‭justice,‬‭fairness‬‭and‬‭good‬‭conscience‬
‭rather‬ ‭than‬‭the‬‭customs‬‭and‬ ‭precedents‬‭that‬‭were‬‭decided‬‭previously.‬‭He‬‭was‬‭a‬‭churchman‬‭who‬
‭was‬ ‭familiar‬ ‭with‬ ‭Roman‬ ‭Law.‬‭26‬ ‭Hence,‬ ‭we‬‭can‬‭clearly‬‭see‬‭that‬‭the‬‭Chancellor‬‭applied‬‭Roman‬
‭equitable‬ ‭principles‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭petitions‬ ‭that‬ ‭he‬ ‭heard.‬‭27‬ ‭He‬‭was‬‭also‬‭prepared‬‭to‬‭look‬‭beyond‬‭legal‬
‭documents‬ ‭which‬ ‭were‬ ‭considered‬ ‭legally‬ ‭binding‬ ‭by‬ ‭the‬ ‭common‬ ‭law‬ ‭courts,‬ ‭and‬ ‭to‬ ‭take‬
‭account‬ ‭of‬ ‭what‬ ‭the‬ ‭parties‬ ‭intended‬ ‭to‬ ‭do.‬‭28‬ ‭He‬ ‭also‬ ‭introduced‬ ‭new‬ ‭procedures‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬
‭“subpoenas”‬‭29‬ ‭and‬‭developed‬‭new‬ ‭remedies‬‭such‬‭as‬‭injunctions,‬‭specific‬‭performance,‬‭rescission‬
‭and‬‭rectification.‬‭An‬‭injunction‬‭is‬ ‭an‬‭order‬‭of‬‭a‬‭court‬‭to‬‭perform‬‭or‬‭not‬‭to‬‭perform‬‭an‬‭act,‬‭specific‬
‭performance‬ ‭is‬ ‭an‬ ‭order‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭court‬ ‭to‬ ‭carry‬ ‭out‬‭the‬‭contract‬‭as‬‭originally‬‭agreed‬‭between‬‭the‬
‭parties,‬ ‭rescission‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭process‬ ‭of‬ ‭returning‬ ‭the‬ ‭parties‬ ‭as‬ ‭far‬ ‭as‬ ‭possible‬ ‭to‬ ‭their‬ ‭original‬
‭positions‬ ‭before‬ ‭performing‬ ‭the‬ ‭contract,‬ ‭whereas‬ ‭rectification‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭altering‬ ‭or‬ ‭rectifying‬ ‭a‬
‭mistake‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬‭document‬‭as‬‭the‬‭mistake‬‭does‬‭not‬‭reflect‬‭the‬‭true‬‭intention‬‭of‬‭the‬‭parties.‬‭Overtime‬
‭equitable‬ ‭maxims‬ ‭were‬ ‭also‬ ‭developed‬ ‭as‬ ‭well‬ ‭which‬ ‭are‬‭also‬‭very‬‭well‬‭in‬‭use‬‭today.‬‭One‬‭can‬
‭only‬‭be‬‭astonished‬‭and‬‭be‬‭at‬‭awe‬‭at‬‭the‬‭legal‬‭mind‬ ‭of‬‭the‬‭Chancellor‬‭for‬‭developing‬‭all‬‭these‬‭in‬
‭order‬ ‭to‬ ‭tackle‬ ‭the‬ ‭problems‬ ‭caused‬ ‭by‬ ‭common‬ ‭law.‬ ‭Eventually‬ ‭a‬ ‭Court‬ ‭of‬ ‭Chancery‬ ‭headed‬
‭under‬ ‭the‬ ‭Chancellor‬ ‭was‬ ‭established‬ ‭which‬ ‭operated‬ ‭under‬ ‭the‬ ‭rules‬ ‭of‬ ‭fairness/equity.‬ ‭The‬
‭Court‬ ‭of‬ ‭Chancery‬ ‭was‬ ‭originally‬ ‭an‬ ‭administrative‬ ‭body‬ ‭under‬ ‭the‬ ‭Lord‬ ‭Chancellor‬ ‭which‬
‭became‬ ‭a‬ ‭largely‬ ‭judicial‬ ‭body‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭14‬‭th‬ ‭century‬ ‭which‬ ‭further‬ ‭developed‬ ‭the‬ ‭doctrine‬ ‭of‬
‭equity.‬‭30‬ ‭While‬‭it‬‭was‬‭not‬‭an‬‭ecclesiastical‬‭court,‬‭its‬‭presiding‬‭Officer,‬‭the‬‭Chancellor‬‭was‬‭one,‬‭he‬
‭had‬‭knowledge‬‭of‬‭Roman‬‭and‬‭thus‬‭applied‬‭it‬‭in‬‭different‬‭cases.‬‭31‬ ‭In‬ ‭fact,‬‭the‬‭Court‬‭of‬‭Chancery‬
‭was‬ ‭also‬ ‭called‬ ‭“Backbone‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭Roman”‬ ‭as‬ ‭the‬ ‭equitable‬ ‭principles‬ ‭developed‬‭under‬‭Roman‬
‭civil‬ ‭law‬ ‭largely‬ ‭entered‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭English‬ ‭legal‬ ‭system‬ ‭from‬ ‭here.‬‭32‬ ‭Of‬ ‭course,‬‭it‬‭was‬‭not‬‭always‬
‭uphill‬ ‭from‬ ‭here.‬ ‭Another‬ ‭major‬ ‭problem‬ ‭occurred‬ ‭which‬ ‭was‬ ‭a‬ ‭conflict‬ ‭between‬‭the‬‭common‬
‭law‬‭court‬‭and‬‭the‬‭Court‬‭of‬‭Chancery.‬‭The‬‭common‬‭law‬‭court‬‭would‬‭decide‬ ‭a‬‭matter‬‭in‬‭one‬‭way‬
‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭same‬ ‭would‬ ‭be‬ ‭decided‬ ‭differently‬‭by‬‭the‬‭Court‬‭of‬‭Chancery.‬‭These‬ ‭two‬‭Courts‬‭would‬
‭clash‬‭again‬‭and‬‭again.‬‭A‬‭person‬‭who‬‭had‬‭his‬‭case‬‭decided‬‭not‬‭in‬‭his‬‭favour‬‭by‬ ‭the‬‭common‬‭law‬
‭court‬ ‭would‬ ‭simply‬ ‭go‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭Court‬ ‭of‬ ‭Chancery‬ ‭which‬ ‭would‬ ‭decide‬‭the‬‭matter‬ ‭in‬‭his‬‭favour.‬
‭Hence‬‭the‬‭legal‬‭system‬‭was‬‭in‬‭peril‬‭at‬‭that‬‭time.‬‭The‬‭controversy‬‭was‬‭eventually‬ ‭resolved‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭famous‬‭Earl‬‭of‬‭Oxford’s‬‭case‬‭33‬‭.‬‭The‬‭King,‬‭James‬‭I‬‭on‬‭the‬‭advice‬‭of‬‭the‬‭then‬ ‭Attorney‬‭General‬‭Sir‬
‭Francis‬ ‭Bacon‬ ‭ruled‬ ‭that‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭case‬ ‭where‬ ‭there‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭conflict‬ ‭between‬ ‭equity‬ ‭and‬‭common‬‭law,‬
‭equity‬‭shall‬‭prevail.‬‭This‬‭was‬‭a‬‭major‬‭victory‬‭for‬‭equity.‬‭Hence,‬‭the‬‭position‬‭of‬ ‭equity‬‭being‬‭the‬
‭more‬‭dominant‬‭force‬‭against‬‭common‬‭law‬‭prevailed‬‭for‬‭the‬‭next‬‭two‬‭centuries‬‭until‬‭the‬‭passing‬‭of‬
‭the‬ ‭Judicature‬ ‭Acts‬ ‭of‬ ‭1873-1875,‬ ‭which‬ ‭merged‬ ‭the‬ ‭common‬ ‭law‬ ‭court‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬ ‭Court‬ ‭of‬
‭Chancery and its jurisdiction was transferred to the Chancery Division of the High Court.‬
‭Hence,‬ ‭equity‬ ‭and‬ ‭common‬ ‭law‬ ‭merged,‬ ‭no‬ ‭longer‬ ‭would‬ ‭there‬ ‭be‬ ‭any‬ ‭conflict‬ ‭or‬ ‭other‬
‭problems‬ ‭occurring‬ ‭between‬ ‭the‬ ‭two.‬ ‭And‬ ‭naturally,‬ ‭all‬ ‭of‬ ‭this‬ ‭not‬ ‭just‬ ‭had‬ ‭an‬ ‭impact‬ ‭in‬ ‭just‬
‭England but also, its various colonies all of which included British India as well.‬
‭4. Equitable Maxims‬

‭What‬ ‭exactly‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭maxim?‬ ‭It‬ ‭has‬ ‭been‬‭defined‬‭as‬‭“a‬‭broad‬‭statement‬‭of‬‭principle,‬‭the‬‭truth‬‭and‬

‭reasonableness‬ ‭of‬ ‭which‬ ‭are‬ ‭self-evident.‬ ‭A‬ ‭rule‬ ‭of‬ ‭equity,‬ ‭the‬ ‭system‬ ‭of‬ ‭justice‬ ‭that‬
‭complements‬ ‭the‬ ‭common‬ ‭law.”‬‭34‬ ‭It‬ ‭has‬ ‭also‬ ‭been‬ ‭defined‬ ‭as‬ ‭“an‬ ‭established‬ ‭principle‬ ‭or‬
‭proposition.‬‭A‬‭principle‬ ‭of‬‭law‬‭universally‬‭admitted,‬‭as‬‭being‬‭a‬‭correct‬‭statement‬‭of‬‭the‬‭law,‬‭or‬
‭as‬ ‭agreeable‬ ‭to‬ ‭natural‬ ‭reason.‬ ‭Coke‬ ‭writs‬ ‭that‬ ‭“a‬ ‭maxime‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭proposition‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭of‬ ‭all‬ ‭men‬
‭confessed‬‭and‬‭granted‬‭without‬ ‭proof,‬‭argument,‬‭or‬‭discourse.”‬‭35‬ ‭Hence,‬‭we‬‭can‬‭conclude‬‭that‬‭a‬
‭maxim‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬ ‭seen‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬ ‭principle‬ ‭that‬ ‭is‬ ‭to‬ ‭followed‬ ‭by‬ ‭all.‬ ‭The‬ ‭system‬ ‭of‬ ‭equity‬ ‭naturally‬
‭developed‬ ‭its‬ ‭own‬ ‭maxims‬ ‭which‬ ‭it‬ ‭endorsed‬ ‭and‬ ‭followed.‬ ‭The‬ ‭courts‬‭generally‬‭justify‬‭their‬
‭decisions‬ ‭and‬ ‭base‬ ‭basic‬ ‭principles‬ ‭of‬ ‭equity‬ ‭by‬ ‭these‬ ‭maxims‬ ‭which‬ ‭in‬ ‭turn‬‭have‬‭guided‬‭the‬
‭development of equity. The major equitable maxims are as follows:‬

‭No wrong without a remedy‬

‭Wherever‬‭a‬‭wrong‬‭has‬‭been‬‭committed,‬‭equity‬‭will‬‭always‬‭provide‬‭a‬‭remedy.‬‭It‬‭is‬‭from‬‭here‬‭that‬
‭the‬ ‭principle‬ ‭of‬ ‭always‬ ‭providing‬ ‭remedy‬ ‭for‬ ‭anyone‬ ‭whose‬ ‭legal‬ ‭right‬ ‭has‬ ‭been‬ ‭infringed.‬
‭Hence,‬ ‭equity‬‭will‬‭always‬‭provide‬‭where‬‭a‬‭legal‬‭wrong‬‭has‬‭been‬‭committed,‬‭not‬‭where‬‭a‬‭moral‬
‭wrong‬ ‭is‬ ‭committed.‬ ‭It‬ ‭is‬ ‭also‬ ‭thanks‬ ‭to‬ ‭this‬ ‭maxim‬ ‭that‬ ‭the‬ ‭development‬ ‭of‬ ‭new‬ ‭equitable‬
‭remedies is possible.‬

‭Equity acts in personam‬

‭This‬‭maxim‬‭refers‬‭to‬‭the‬‭fact‬‭that‬‭equity‬‭issued‬‭its‬‭decrees‬‭against‬‭a‬‭person‬‭himself.‬‭If‬‭the‬‭person‬
‭did‬‭not‬‭comply,‬‭he‬‭was‬‭liable‬‭for‬‭imprisonment.‬‭Hence,‬‭judicial‬‭obedience‬‭was‬‭evolved‬‭through‬
‭this maxim.‬

‭Equity acts on the conscience‬

‭Equity‬ ‭looks‬ ‭at‬ ‭the‬ ‭conscience‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭parties.‬‭Equity‬‭does‬‭not‬‭give‬‭justice‬‭to‬‭anyone‬‭who‬‭does‬
‭not‬ ‭come‬‭with‬‭a‬‭clean‬‭conscience,‬‭in‬‭other‬‭words,‬‭someone‬‭who‬‭has‬‭malicious‬‭intentions‬‭should‬
‭not come to equity.‬

‭Equity aids the vigilant, not the indolent/Delay Defeats equity‬

‭Equity‬ ‭does‬ ‭not‬ ‭provide‬ ‭aid‬ ‭to‬ ‭those‬ ‭who‬ ‭were‬ ‭far‬ ‭too‬‭late‬‭in‬‭seeking‬‭equitable‬‭remedies.‬‭If‬‭a‬
‭person‬‭took‬‭too‬‭much‬‭time‬‭in‬‭his‬‭claim,‬‭then‬‭he‬‭could‬‭not‬‭be‬‭reasonably‬‭provided‬‭with‬‭remedies‬
‭as‬ ‭this‬ ‭would‬ ‭be‬ ‭unfair‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭other‬ ‭party.‬ ‭This‬ ‭was‬ ‭first‬ ‭applied‬ ‭in‬ ‭Leaf‬ ‭v‬ ‭International‬
‭Galleries‬‭36‬‭.‬ ‭In‬‭this‬‭case,‬‭a‬‭plaintiff‬‭bought‬‭a‬‭painting‬‭which‬‭both‬‭parties‬‭believed‬‭to‬‭be‬‭painted‬
‭by‬ ‭Constable.‬ ‭It‬ ‭was‬ ‭found‬ ‭out‬ ‭later‬ ‭on‬ ‭that‬ ‭it‬ ‭was‬ ‭not‬ ‭in‬ ‭fact‬ ‭a‬ ‭painting‬ ‭by‬ ‭Constable.‬ ‭The‬
‭plaintiff‬ ‭issued‬ ‭a‬ ‭claim,‬ ‭albeit‬ ‭five‬ ‭years‬ ‭later.‬ ‭Denning‬ ‭LJ.‬ ‭ruled‬ ‭that‬ ‭the‬‭right‬‭to‬‭rescind‬‭the‬
‭contract‬ ‭cannot‬ ‭be‬ ‭enforced‬ ‭as‬‭there‬‭was‬‭a‬‭delay‬‭of‬‭five‬‭years‬‭in‬‭between‬‭buying‬‭the‬‭painting‬
‭and discovering that it was not a painting by Constable.‬

‭Equity looks to the intention and not the form‬

‭This‬‭maxim‬‭simply‬‭means‬‭that‬‭equity‬‭is‬‭to‬‭look‬‭at‬‭the‬‭intention‬‭of‬‭the‬‭parties‬‭who‬‭were‬‭engaged‬
‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭contract‬ ‭or‬ ‭anything‬ ‭rather‬ ‭than‬ ‭the‬ ‭contract‬ ‭or‬ ‭any‬ ‭other‬ ‭document‬ ‭itself.‬ ‭Equity‬ ‭is‬ ‭to‬
‭ascertain‬ ‭what‬‭the‬‭original‬‭intentions‬‭of‬‭the‬‭parties‬‭at‬‭the‬‭time‬‭of‬‭agreement‬‭rather‬‭than‬‭what‬‭has‬
‭been‬‭agreed‬ ‭upon,‬‭especially‬‭if‬‭the‬‭agreement‬‭itself‬‭suffered‬‭from‬‭mistakes.‬‭In‬‭the‬‭case‬‭of‬‭Berry‬
‭v.‬‭Berry‬‭37‬‭,‬‭a‬ ‭deed‬‭was‬‭held‬‭to‬‭have‬‭been‬‭altered‬‭by‬‭a‬‭contract.‬‭Under‬‭common‬‭law,‬‭a‬‭deed‬‭could‬
‭only‬ ‭be‬ ‭altered‬ ‭by‬ ‭another‬ ‭deed,‬ ‭but‬ ‭under‬ ‭equity,‬ ‭it‬ ‭was‬ ‭decided‬ ‭that‬ ‭as‬ ‭the‬ ‭parties‬ ‭had‬
‭originally‬ ‭intended‬ ‭to‬ ‭alter‬ ‭the‬ ‭deed,‬ ‭it‬ ‭would‬ ‭be‬ ‭fairer‬ ‭to‬ ‭look‬ ‭at‬ ‭the‬ ‭intention‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭parties‬
‭rather than the fact that the parties had gotten the formalities wrong.‬

‭He who comes to equity must come with clean hands‬

‭This‬ ‭is‬ ‭similar‬‭to‬‭the‬‭maxim‬‭equity‬‭acts‬‭on‬‭conscience‬‭.‬‭Anyone‬‭who‬‭has‬‭acted‬‭unfairly‬‭or‬‭with‬
‭ulterior‬‭motives‬‭in‬‭mind‬‭will‬‭not‬‭be‬‭granted‬‭any‬‭equitable‬‭relief.‬‭In‬‭the‬‭case‬‭of‬‭D‬‭&‬‭C‬‭Builders‬
‭Ltd‬ ‭v‬‭Rees‬‭38‬‭,‬‭Mr.‬‭and‬‭Mrs.‬‭Rees‬‭refused‬‭to‬‭pay‬‭full‬‭payment‬‭to‬‭a‬‭construction‬‭firm‬‭that‬‭had‬‭done‬
‭work‬ ‭for‬ ‭them.‬ ‭The‬ ‭Rees‬ ‭had‬ ‭paid‬ ‭250‬‭pounds‬‭in‬‭advance‬‭out‬‭of‬‭the‬‭total‬‭bill‬‭of‬‭732‬‭pounds.‬
‭When‬‭the‬ ‭firm‬‭asked‬‭for‬‭the‬‭remaining‬‭482‬‭pounds‬‭back,‬‭the‬‭Rees‬‭who‬‭knew‬‭that‬‭the‬‭workers‬
‭were‬ ‭in‬ ‭financial‬ ‭difficulty‬ ‭and‬ ‭needed‬ ‭money‬ ‭urgently‬ ‭refused‬ ‭to‬ ‭pay‬ ‭the‬ ‭whole‬ ‭amount,‬
‭claiming‬ ‭that‬ ‭the‬ ‭work‬ ‭had‬‭not‬‭been‬‭done‬‭properly‬‭and‬‭they‬‭would‬‭only‬‭pay‬‭300‬‭pounds.‬‭The‬
‭firm‬ ‭accepted‬ ‭it‬ ‭reluctantly‬ ‭at‬ ‭first‬ ‭but‬ ‭later‬‭on‬‭sued‬‭the‬‭Rees‬‭for‬‭the‬‭remaining‬‭amount.‬‭Lord‬
‭Denning‬‭held‬‭that‬‭the‬ ‭doctrine‬‭of‬‭estoppel‬‭(an‬‭equitable‬‭doctrine‬‭in‬‭which‬‭the‬‭courts‬‭can‬‭declare‬
‭that‬‭the‬‭plaintiffs‬‭are‬ ‭prevented‬‭from‬‭asking‬‭for‬‭the‬‭rest‬‭of‬‭the‬‭amount)‬‭will‬‭not‬‭be‬‭applied‬‭here‬
‭as‬ ‭the‬ ‭Rees‬ ‭family‬ ‭who‬ ‭knew‬ ‭that‬ ‭the‬ ‭workers‬ ‭were‬ ‭in‬ ‭financial‬ ‭difficulty‬ ‭and‬ ‭took‬ ‭unfair‬
‭advantage of it did not come with clean hands.‬

‭He who seeks equity must do equity‬

‭Again,‬‭a‬‭similar‬‭maxim‬‭to‬‭the‬‭ones‬‭mentioned‬‭above,‬‭except‬‭in‬‭this‬‭case‬‭the‬‭petitioner’s‬‭present‬
‭actions and conduct will be taken into account.‬

‭Where the equities are equal, the earlier in time prevails‬

‭Where‬ ‭the‬ ‭rights‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭parties‬ ‭are‬ ‭equal‬‭both‬‭in‬‭worth‬‭or‬‭value,‬‭the‬‭one‬‭who‬‭comes‬‭first‬‭shall‬
‭prevail. Hence, this follows the concept of “first come, first serve”.‬

‭Equity follows the law‬

‭Equity‬ ‭will‬‭follow‬‭common‬‭law‬‭unless‬‭there‬‭is‬‭a‬‭good‬‭reason‬‭to‬‭the‬‭contrary.‬‭Where‬‭the‬‭law‬‭is‬
‭not‬ ‭providing‬‭proper‬‭justice‬‭to‬‭the‬‭parties,‬‭equity‬‭is‬‭there‬‭to‬‭fill‬‭in‬‭the‬‭gaps‬‭and‬‭provide‬‭proper‬
‭justice.‬

‭Equity looks at that to be done which ought to be done‬

‭Equity‬ ‭looks‬ ‭at‬‭the‬‭obligations‬‭that‬‭should‬‭have‬‭been‬‭fulfilled‬‭rather‬‭then‬‭what‬‭the‬‭party‬‭did‬‭as‬
‭thought‬ ‭best.‬ ‭Equity‬ ‭will‬ ‭look‬ ‭and‬ ‭treat‬ ‭any‬ ‭intention‬ ‭to‬ ‭fulfill‬ ‭an‬‭obligation‬‭as‬‭something‬‭has‬
‭already been fulfilled.‬

‭Equity imputes an intent to fulfill an obligation‬

‭Again, similar to the one above, equity will presume an act done by a man as a just and right act.‬

‭Equity will not assist a volunteer‬

‭Equity shall not assist anyone who gives no consideration.‬

‭These are the major maxims of equity that have been used and developed by the courts.‬
‭5. Conclusion‬
‭Hence‬ ‭from‬ ‭the‬ ‭discussion‬ ‭hereinabove,‬ ‭we‬ ‭can‬ ‭conclude‬ ‭that‬ ‭equity‬ ‭refers‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭set‬ ‭of‬
‭principles‬ ‭that‬‭allow‬‭for‬‭the‬‭avoidance‬‭of‬‭the‬‭strict‬‭application‬‭of‬‭a‬‭rigid‬‭law‬‭so‬‭as‬‭to‬‭make‬‭sure‬
‭that‬ ‭justice‬ ‭rather‬ ‭than‬ ‭injustice‬ ‭is‬ ‭administered‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬‭instant‬‭case.‬‭It‬‭has‬‭its‬‭origin‬‭in‬‭various‬
‭different‬ ‭cultures‬ ‭in‬ ‭some‬ ‭form‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬ ‭theory‬ ‭or‬‭a‬‭legal‬‭principle.‬‭It‬‭stems‬‭its‬‭origin‬‭all‬‭the‬‭way‬
‭back‬‭from‬‭the‬‭Code‬‭of‬ ‭Hammurabi‬‭and‬‭other‬‭Babylonian‬‭tribes‬‭to‬‭the‬‭Hebrew‬‭tribe’s‬‭addition‬‭of‬
‭moral‬‭principles‬‭derived‬ ‭from‬‭their‬‭religious‬‭doctrines‬‭to‬‭Aristotle’s‬‭exposition‬‭of‬‭epieikeia‬‭and‬
‭epiekis‬‭,‬ ‭where‬ ‭he‬ ‭surmises‬ ‭equity‬ ‭is‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭used‬‭for‬‭the‬‭‘rectification’‬‭of‬‭law‬‭rather,‬‭where‬‭the‬
‭law‬ ‭is‬ ‭too‬ ‭strict‬ ‭and‬ ‭absolute‬ ‭and‬ ‭its‬ ‭literal‬ ‭application‬ ‭would‬ ‭result‬ ‭in‬ ‭injustice‬ ‭rather‬ ‭than‬
‭justice.‬‭The‬‭Romans‬‭incorporated‬‭the‬ ‭principles‬‭of‬‭equity‬‭under‬‭the‬‭precept‬‭of‬‭aequum/aequitas‬‭,‬
‭which‬‭means‬‭equality.‬‭The‬‭Romans‬ ‭further‬‭developed‬‭equity‬‭in‬‭the‬‭form‬‭various‬‭legal‬‭principles‬
‭under‬‭their‬‭codified‬‭law.‬‭Equity‬‭was‬ ‭also‬‭present‬‭under‬‭ancient‬‭Chinese‬‭jurisprudence‬‭as‬‭qingli‬‭,‬
‭which‬ ‭refers‬ ‭to‬ ‭compassion‬ ‭and‬ ‭was‬ ‭also‬ ‭present‬ ‭under‬ ‭the‬ ‭ancient‬ ‭Hindu‬ ‭jurisprudence‬ ‭of‬
‭dharma‬‭,‬ ‭which‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭Hindu‬ ‭law‬ ‭of‬ ‭righteousness‬ ‭and‬ ‭has‬ ‭also‬ ‭been‬ ‭referred‬ ‭to‬ ‭natural‬ ‭law,‬
‭morality,‬‭moral‬‭law,‬‭duty‬‭among‬‭others.‬ ‭Under‬‭Islamic‬‭Law,‬‭there‬‭is‬‭a‬‭debate‬‭that‬‭the‬‭doctrine‬‭of‬
‭istihsan‬‭is‬‭the‬‭Islamic‬‭counterpart‬‭of‬ ‭equity,‬‭although‬‭there‬‭are‬‭certain‬‭similarities‬‭between‬‭both.‬
‭The‬‭English‬‭Common‬‭Law‬‭was‬ ‭developed‬‭after‬‭the‬‭Norman‬‭King,‬‭William‬‭the‬‭Conqueror‬‭sent‬‭a‬
‭lot‬ ‭of‬ ‭his‬ ‭magistrates‬ ‭to‬ ‭various‬ ‭different‬ ‭towns‬ ‭to‬ ‭decide‬ ‭cases.‬ ‭These‬ ‭judges‬ ‭decided‬ ‭cases‬
‭based‬ ‭on‬ ‭old‬ ‭Anglo-Saxon‬ ‭custom‬ ‭and‬ ‭it‬ ‭is‬ ‭believed‬ ‭that‬ ‭on‬ ‭their‬ ‭return‬ ‭to‬ ‭England,‬‭they‬‭all‬
‭together‬‭decided‬‭on‬‭the‬‭best‬‭customs‬‭to‬‭apply‬ ‭to‬‭particular‬‭cases.‬‭This‬‭was‬‭a‬‭means‬‭of‬‭an‬‭effort‬
‭to‬‭make‬‭the‬‭English‬‭law‬‭more‬‭uniform.‬ ‭Ultimately,‬‭it‬‭let‬‭to‬‭the‬‭application‬‭and‬‭development‬‭of‬
‭the‬ ‭doctrine‬ ‭of‬ ‭stare‬‭decisis‬‭(similar‬‭cases‬ ‭are‬‭to‬‭decided‬‭similarly).‬‭The‬‭legal‬‭system‬‭suffered‬
‭from‬‭a‬‭lot‬‭of‬‭rigidness.‬‭The‬‭Common‬‭Law‬ ‭courts‬‭strictly‬‭applied‬‭to‬‭the‬‭law‬‭which‬‭caused‬‭a‬‭lot‬
‭of‬ ‭inconvenience‬ ‭to‬ ‭parties,‬ ‭it‬ ‭suffered‬ ‭from‬ ‭a‬ ‭distinctive‬ ‭lack‬ ‭of‬ ‭remedies.‬ ‭In‬ ‭fact,‬ ‭the‬ ‭only‬
‭remedy‬ ‭common‬ ‭law‬ ‭had‬ ‭was‬ ‭to‬ ‭give‬‭damages‬‭to‬‭the‬‭victim‬‭party.‬‭It‬‭suffered‬‭from‬‭procedural‬
‭rigidness‬‭as‬‭well.‬‭It‬‭had‬‭no‬‭power‬‭to‬‭summon‬‭parties‬ ‭before‬‭them.‬‭If‬‭someone‬‭could‬‭not‬‭deposit‬
‭the‬ ‭required‬ ‭amount‬ ‭for‬ ‭the‬ ‭registration‬ ‭of‬‭his‬‭case,‬‭then‬‭his‬‭case‬‭would‬‭not‬‭be‬‭registered.‬‭The‬
‭Common‬ ‭Law‬ ‭courts‬ ‭also‬ ‭exclusively‬ ‭used‬ ‭Latin‬ ‭instead‬ ‭of‬ ‭English‬ ‭which‬ ‭caused‬ ‭a‬ ‭lot‬ ‭of‬
‭communication‬ ‭problems.‬ ‭Due‬ ‭to‬ ‭this‬‭a‬‭lot‬‭of‬‭parties‬‭appealed‬‭to‬‭the‬ ‭King.‬‭The‬‭King,‬‭being‬‭a‬
‭busy‬‭man‬‭handed‬‭such‬‭cases‬‭to‬‭his‬‭Chancellor,‬‭who‬‭was‬‭a‬‭Roman‬‭catholic‬‭and‬‭had‬‭knowledge‬‭of‬
‭roman‬ ‭law.‬ ‭He‬ ‭developed‬ ‭many‬ ‭different‬ ‭equitable‬ ‭principles‬ ‭and‬ ‭new‬ ‭procedures‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬
‭subpoenas‬ ‭and‬ ‭summons‬ ‭to‬ ‭dispense‬ ‭with‬ ‭speedy‬ ‭and‬ ‭proper‬ ‭justice.‬ ‭Ultimately,‬ ‭a‬ ‭Court‬ ‭of‬
‭Chancery‬ ‭under‬ ‭the‬ ‭Chancellor‬ ‭was‬ ‭constituted.‬ ‭The‬ ‭Chancery‬ ‭Court‬ ‭applied‬ ‭the‬‭principle‬‭of‬
‭equity‬‭as‬‭compared‬‭to‬‭the‬‭Common‬‭Law‬‭courts‬‭which‬‭applied‬‭the‬‭Common‬ ‭Law.‬‭Then‬‭arose‬‭a‬
‭long‬‭conflict‬‭between‬‭the‬‭Chancery‬‭Courts‬‭and‬‭Common‬‭Law‬‭Courts‬‭over‬‭jurisdictional‬‭issues.‬
‭One‬ ‭person‬ ‭could‬ ‭lose‬ ‭his‬ ‭case‬‭at‬‭one‬‭Court‬‭and‬‭win‬‭his‬‭case‬‭at‬‭the‬‭other‬ ‭Court.‬‭This‬‭conflict‬
‭was‬ ‭eventually‬ ‭settled‬‭centuries‬‭later‬‭where‬‭the‬‭King‬‭decided‬‭that‬‭in‬‭a‬‭conflict‬ ‭between‬‭equity‬
‭and‬‭common‬‭law,‬‭the‬‭former‬‭was‬‭to‬‭prevail.‬‭During‬‭the‬‭19‬‭th‬ ‭century,‬‭both‬‭the‬ ‭Chancery‬‭Courts‬
‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭Common‬ ‭Law‬ ‭Courts‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬ ‭result‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Judicature‬‭Act,‬‭1873-1875‬‭and‬ ‭thus‬‭there‬‭was‬
‭one‬‭Court‬‭which‬‭was‬‭to‬‭apply‬‭both‬‭common‬‭law‬‭and‬‭equity.‬‭There‬‭are‬‭many‬ ‭different‬‭equitable‬
‭maxims‬‭that‬‭were‬‭developed‬‭by‬‭the‬‭Courts‬‭that‬‭are‬‭still‬‭in‬‭use‬‭today,‬‭namely:‬ ‭No‬‭wrong‬‭without‬
‭a‬ ‭remedy,‬ ‭equity‬ ‭acts‬ ‭in‬ ‭personam‬‭,‬ ‭equity‬ ‭acts‬‭on‬‭the‬‭conscience,‬‭equity‬‭aids‬ ‭the‬‭vigilant,‬‭not‬
‭the‬‭indolent/Delay‬‭Defeats‬‭equity,‬‭equity‬‭looks‬‭to‬‭the‬‭intention‬‭and‬‭not‬‭the‬‭form,‬ ‭he‬‭who‬‭comes‬
‭to‬‭equity‬‭must‬‭come‬‭with‬‭clean‬‭hands,‬‭he‬‭who‬‭seeks‬‭equity‬‭must‬‭do‬‭equity,‬‭where‬ ‭the‬‭equities‬
‭are‬ ‭equal,‬ ‭the‬ ‭earlier‬ ‭in‬ ‭time‬ ‭prevails,‬ ‭equity‬ ‭follows‬ ‭the‬ ‭law,‬ ‭equity‬ ‭looks‬ ‭at‬ ‭that‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭done‬
‭which‬‭ought‬‭to‬‭be‬‭done,‬‭equity‬‭imputes‬‭an‬‭intent‬‭to‬‭fulfill‬‭an‬‭obligation,‬‭equity‬‭will‬‭not‬‭assist‬ ‭a‬
‭volunteer.‬