E10.

R1
The power of
exponentials:
Exponential functions

Objectives Inquiry questions

Recognizing exponential functions What are exponential functions?
F
●● ●●

●● Using exponential functions to model real-life

problems
How do you transform exponential
C
●●
●● Identifying and using translations, reflections functions?
and dilations with exponential functions
●● How do you recognize transformations
of exponential functions?
Do exponential models have limitations?
D
●●

●● Do patterns lead to accurate predictions?

ATL

Critical-thinking

Draw reasonable conclusions and generalizations

1
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

You should already know how to:

●● evaluate expressions with 1 Write down the value of:
exponents a 20  b 24  c 4−1  d 3−2
●● identify and apply translations, 2 Here is the graph of y = f(x).
reflections and dilations to y
functions 6

−4 −2 2 4 x
−2

−4

Sketch the graph of:

a y = f(x) + 3 b y = f(x − 2)
c y = −f(x) d y = f(−x)
e y = 2f(x) f y = f(2x)

 F Exponential functions
●● What are exponential functions?

Exploration 1
1 A wealthy donor offers money to a charity in two ways:
Option 1: A one-time donation Option 2: A donation of one cent
of $5000. on day 1, two cents on day 2,
four cents on day 3, and so on,
doubling each day, for 20 days. 
Without doing any calculations, predict which option gives the most money.
2 Now find the total amount donated under Option 2.
a Copy and complete the table:

Day 1 2 3 4 5
Amount (cents) 1 2 4 8 16
Amount as a
2 2
power of 2

b Write a function for the amount on day x.

3 Use your GDC or a spreadsheet to work out the amounts for
days 1 to 20. Find the total in US dollars for all 20 days.
4 Graph your function from step 2b for 1 ≤ x ≤ 20.
ATL

Explain which option gives the most money.

2
 In a function y = bx, where b is a positive integer greater than 1, as the x values
increase, the y values increase very rapidly.

Exploration 2
1 Graph the function y = bx and insert 1.1

a slider for the parameter b. Move the y

slider to explore what happens to the 6
graph for values of b greater than 1. 5 y = bx

a State what happens to the value 4

of y as b increases. 3

b Determine if the y-intercept 2 b = 3.0

remains the same for all values 1 0.0 10.0

of b. Explain.
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x
c Determine if the function has
an x-intercept, that is, whether the
function will ever be equal to 0.
d Explain what happens to the value of y for x < 0, as the values
of x get less and less.
e Suggest why an exponential function with b > 1 is called an
ATL

exponential growth function.

1.1

2 Now redefine the slider so that 0 < b < 1. y

6
Answer parts a, b and c in step 1 for y = bx
this function. 5
4
a Explain what happens to the
3
value of y for x > 0, as the values b = 0.3
of x get larger and larger. 2
0.0 1.0
1
b Suggest why an exponential
function with 0 < b < 1 is called −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x
an exponential decay function.
3 Explain what happens to the graph if b < 0, and justify your answer.

An exponential function is of the form f (x) = a × bx, where a ≠ 0, b > 0, b ≠ 1.

The independent variable x is the exponent.

Exploration 3
1 By choosing a fixed value for b where b > 1, graph the function
y = a × bx and insert a slider for the parameter a. Describe how the
y-intercept changes.
2 Repeat step 1, but this time choose a fixed value of b such that 0 < b < 1.
3 Explain how the value of a is related to the y-intercept for any
exponential function.

3
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

The exponential function y = bx does not have

y
any x-intercepts. 4 y = bx
For b > 1, as x gets less and less, the 2 b = 3.0
function approaches 0, but never equals 0. 0.0 10.0

−4 −2 0 2 4x

For 0 < b < 1, as x gets larger and larger,

the function approaches 0, but never equals 0. y

y = bx 4
For any value of b > 0 the function y = bx
b = 0.3
has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. 2
0.0 1.0

−4 −2 0 2 4x

A horizontal asymptote is the line that the graph of f (x) approaches as x

gets larger and larger.

Reflect and discuss 1

●● Here is the graph of exponential function y = bx. y
●● Deduce the value of b from the graph. (1, 4)
Check your answer by graphing
the exponential function with the value
of b you chose. Explain how you found b. (−1, 0.25) (0, 1)
●● Identify the value of b from the second 0 x
graph of y = bx. Explain how you found b.
y
●● Given the standard form of the exponential
Look at any graphs
function is y = a × bx, for these two graphs
(−1, 4) you drew in
the value of a is 1. Explain how you could Exploration 3.
identify the value of a from a graph of
(0, 1)
y = a × bx where a ≠ 1. (1, 0.25)
0 x

Population growth, bacterial and viral growth, spread of epidemics, decay of

radioactive substances, and finances such as interest and credit card payments
can all be modelled with exponential functions.

4
Example 1
There are 128 players in a tennis tournament. Half of the players are
eliminated after each round.
a Write a table of values, and a function for the number of players after
round x.
b Determine the number of rounds needed to declare a winner.
a Round Number of players
number (x) at end of round (y)
0 128
1⎞
1 64 ⎛⎜⎝ =128 × ⎟
2⎠
⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎞
2
2 32 ⎜ = 64 × =128 × ⎛⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠

⎛ 3⎞
3 16 ⎜ =128 × ⎛⎝⎜ 1 ⎞⎠⎟ ⎟⎠
⎝ 2

⎛ 4
1⎞ ⎞ Look for a pattern
4 8 ⎜ =128× ⎛⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎟ in the y values.
⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛ 5
1⎞ ⎞
5 4 ⎜ =128× ⎛⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛ 6
1⎞ ⎞
6 2 ⎜ =128× ⎛⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛ 7
1⎞ ⎞
7 1⎜ =128× ⎛⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

( 12 )
x
y = 128 ×
b 7 rounds are needed. After 7 rounds only one
player, the winner, is left.

1
In Example 1, a = 128 (the initial number of tennis players) and b =
2
(the factor by which the number of players reduces). The variable x represents
the round number, and y represents the number of players left after round x.

In the standard form of the exponential function y = a × bx:

●● the parameter a represents the initial amount
●● the parameter b represents the growth or reduction (decay) factor
●● x is the independent variable (for example: time)
●● y is the dependent variable (for example: population).

5
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

Practice 1
1 One bacterium cell divides to produce two cells every minute.
a Write down a function for the number of cells after x minutes.
b Use your function to calculate the number of cells after 15 minutes.
c Graph your formula to determine:
i the number of cells after half an hour
ii when there will be 1 million cells (after how many minutes).
2 The half-life of carbon-11 is 20 minutes.
The half-life of
a A sample of carbon-11 has 10 000 nuclei. Make a table of values for five a radioactive
20-minute intervals, and write down a function for the number of nuclei material is the
after x number of 20 minute intervals. time taken for the
b Find the number of nuclei after 3 hours. number of nuclei to
halve.
c Determine how long it takes for the number of nuclei to reduce to
less than 10% of the original number.

Problem solving
3 Drug testing trials show that the amount of a pain-relieving medicine in a
person’s body reduces by one quarter every hour. It is safe to take another
dose of the medicine when there is less than 200 mg in the body.
Determine how long after a dose of 400 mg it will be safe to take another dose.

The parameter b, the growth factor, may be a percentage instead of an integer or

fraction. To increase an initial amount by 10%, you multiply by 1 + 0.1 = 1.1.
So if an initial amount y increases by 10% each day, then you have:

End of day 1 End of day 2 End of day 3 End of day x

1.1y 1.1 y
2
1.1 y
3
1.1xy
To decrease an initial amount by 5%, you multiply by 1 − 0.05 = 0.95.
So if an initial amount y decreases by 5% each day, then you have:

End of day 1 End of day 2 End of day 3 End of day x

0.95y 0.95 y
2
0.95 y
3
0.95xy

Exponential growth is modelled by y = a(1 + r)x where r is the growth rate in

decimal form (the percentage expressed as a decimal).
Exponential decay is modelled by y = a(1 − r)x where r is the decay rate in
decimal form.

6
Example 2
The population in a town was estimated to be 38 000 in 2015. Since then the
population has increased each year by approximately 2.4%.
a Determine the growth factor b of the population in the town.
b Write a function to model future population growth.
c Use your function to estimate the population (to the nearest hundred
people) in the year 2030.
a Growth factor b = 1 + r = 1 + 0.024 = 1.024 Change 2.4% to a decimal and add 1.
b y = 38 000 × 1.024x, where x = number of
years, and y = total population after x years. a = initial population, y = a(1 + r)x
c x = 2030 − 2015 = 15
y = 38 000 × 1.02415 = 54 234.4 Find x and substitute into the model.
y ≈ 54 200

Example 3
Sarah bought a car for $15 000. Its value depreciates (loses value) by
approximately 15% each year.
a Find the depreciation (decay) factor.
b Write a function to model the future value of the car.
c Use your function to estimate the value of Sarah’s car after three years, to
the nearest dollar.
a Decay factor b = 1 − r = 1 − 0.15 = 0.85 Change 15% to a decimal and subtract from 1.
b y = 15 000 × 0.85 , where x = number of years,
x

and y = value of the car after x years. Define the variables x and y.
c y = 15 000 × 0.853 = 9211.88
y ≈ $9212 in three years.

Practice 2
1 For each exponential function, identify i the growth/decay factor b,
ii the growth/decay rate r, and iii the initial value a.
( )    d
x
2
a y = 1.43x   b y = 3 × 0.62x   c y = 4 × y = 0.8 × 1.2x
3
2 A jeweler estimates that the value of gold is increasing by 12% per year.
a Determine the growth factor of the value of gold.
b Write a function to model the future value of a gold bracelet valued at
£300 in 2015.
c Use your function to estimate the value of the bracelet in 2030.

7
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

3 An electrical store calculates that the number of DVD players sold is

decreasing by 22% per year. In 2010 they sold 470 DVD players.
a Write a function to model future DVD sales.
b Use your function to estimate the number of DVD players the store will
sell in 2018.
4 In 2015, there were 3014 registered cell phone users in a small town.
The number of cell phone users is estimated to increase by 42% per year.
Estimate the number of cell phone users in 2025.
5 The initial population of an ant colony was approximately 600.
The population grows at a rate of 12% per week.
a Find:
i the growth factor of the population of ants
In 5b, find the point
ii a function to model the population growth of the ants on the graph where
y = 1200, and read
iii the approximate number of ants in the colony after 15 weeks and after
off the value of x.
30 weeks.
b Graph your function. Use the graph to estimate how many weeks the ant
population takes to double in size.
6 A population of 10 000 insects decreases by 9% every year.
a Write down a formula and use it to calculate the number of insects left
i after 3 years
ii after 10 years.
b Use your formula to determine how long it would take for
the insect population to reduce to less than half its present size.

Problem solving
7 Sahil’s parents invest $5000 in a long-term money fund offering 4% interest
compounded annually. Determine how many years it will take for this
amount to double.
8 Conservationists estimate that there are 80 wolves in a forest and that the
population is decreasing at a rate of 3.5% per year. Estimate how long it will
take for the present population to be halved.
9 An antibiotic destroys 10% of bacteria present in one hour. Determine how
long it would take for the antibiotic to reduce 50 million bacteria down to
less than 1 million bacteria.

 C Transformations of exponential functions

●● How do you transform exponential functions?

●● How do you recognize transformations of exponential functions?

Objective: A. Knowing and understanding

i. select appropriate mathematics when solving problems in both familiar and
unfamiliar situations
In Exploration 4, use the rules for transformations of graphs to justify your conjectures.

8
 Exploration 4
()
x
1 Graph y = 3x and y = 1 on the same set of axes. Describe and justify
3
the symmetry between the two graphs. Make and justify a conjecture
about the symmetry of all pairs of graphs of the form y = bx and
( ).
x
1
y=
b
2 Graph y = 3x and y = −3x on the same axes. Describe and justify the
symmetry between the two graphs. Make and justify a conjecture about
the symmetry of all pairs of graphs of the form y = bx and y = −bx.
3 Graph the functions below and insert a slider for the parameter a,
such that a > 0. Describe what happens to the shape of the graph as
the value of a varies, and state the type of transformation this
represents.
a y = a × bx, for b = 2 b y = a × bx, for b = 0.5
4 Graph the function y = 2x + k, and insert a slider for the parameter k.
By changing the value of k, state the transformation that takes the
function y = 2x to y = 2x + k. Describe the transformation from any
exponential function y = abx to abx + k.
5 Graph the function y = 2(x − h), and insert a slider for the parameter h.
By changing the value of h, state the transformation that takes the
function y = 2x to y = 2(x − h). Describe the transformation from any
exponential function y = abx to y = ab(x − h).
6 Explain how to transform the function y = abx to y = ab(x − h) + k.

Transformations of exponential functions

Reflection: For the exponential function f  (x) = a × bx:

●● the graph of y = −f  (x) is a reflection of the graph of y = f  (x) in the x-axis.
●● the graph of y = f  (−x) is a reflection of the graph of y = f  (x) in the y-axis.

Translation: For the exponential function f  (x) = a × bx:

●● y = f  (x − h) translates y = f  (x) by h units in the x-direction.
When h > 0, the graph moves in the positive x-direction, to the right.
When h < 0, the graph moves in the negative x-direction, to the left.
●● y = f  (x) + k translates y = f  (x) by k units in the y-direction.
When k > 0, the graph moves in the positive y-direction, up.
When k < 0, the graph moves in the negative y-direction, down.
●● y = f  (x − h) + k translates y = f  (x) by h units in the x-direction and
k units in the y-direction.

Continued on next page

9
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

Dilation: For the exponential function f  (x) = a × bx:

●● y = af (x) is a vertical dilation of f (x), scale factor a, parallel to the y-axis.
●● y = f (ax) is a horizontal dilation of f (x), scale factor 1, parallel to the x-axis.
a
af  (x) f  (ax)
a>1 y af(x) f(x) y f(ax) f(x)

0 x 0 x
vertical dilation horizontal dilation
0<a<1 y f(x) af(x) y f(x) f(ax)

0 x 0 x

vertical dilation horizontal dilation

Example 4
Start with the function f  (x) = 2x.
a In words, describe the transformation i 0.5f  (x), and ii f  (0.5x).
b Write the transformed functions as i g (x) = 0.5f  (x), and ii h (x) = f  (0.5x)
c Without using a graphing program or GDC, sketch both the function and
the transformed function on the same set of axes.
a i The transformation 0.5f (x) is a vertical dilation of the graph of f (x),
scale factor 0.5, parallel to the y-axis.
The transformation f (0.5x) is a horizontal dilation of the graph of f (x),
ii 
scale factor 1 = 2, parallel to the x-axis.
0.5
b i g (x) = 0.5 × 2x    ii h (x) = 20.5x
c i Graph of f (x) → Graph of g(x) ii Graph of f (x) → Graph of h(x)
(0, 1) → (0, 0.5)   (0, 1) → (0, 1)
(1, 2) → (1, 1)   (1, 2) → 1, 2 ( )
(2, 4) → (2, 2) (2, 4) → (2, 2)
 
y y
f(x) = 2x
5 5
f(x) = 2x h(x) = 20.5x
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0.5 g(x) = 0.5 × 2x

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x

10
Example 5

( 12 ) , g ( x ) = ( 12 ) ( 12 ) :
x x +4 x
Given the functions f ( x ) = and h ( x ) = 0.5
a Describe the transformations i g, and ii h of the function f.
b Write i g, and ii h in terms of f.
c Sketch on the same set of axes i f and g, and ii f and h.
g is a horizontal translation of f by 4 units in the
a i 
negative x direction.
ii h is a vertical dilation of f, scale factor 0.5, parallel to the y-axis.
b i g (x) = f (x + 4)    ii h (x) = 0.5f (x)

c i Graph of f (x) → Graph of g(x) ii Graph of f (x) → Graph of h(x)

1⎞
(0, 1) → ⎛⎜⎝ 0, ⎟  
(−2, 4) → (−2, 2)
16 ⎠
⎛ 1⎞ 1⎞
⎜⎝1, ⎟⎠ → ⎛⎜⎝1, ⎟  (−1, 2) → (−1, 1)
2 32 ⎠
1⎞
(−1, 2) → ⎛⎜⎝ −1, ⎟     (0, 1) → (0, 0.5)
8⎠

f(x) = 1(2) x

5
y
f(x) = 1 (2) 5
x y

4 4
3
(2)
g(x) = 1
x+4 3
2 2
1 (2)
h(x) = 0.5 1
x
1

x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

Practice 3
1 You are given the function f  (x) = 3x.
i Describe each transformation below in words.
ii Write the transformed function as g(x) = ___.
iii Sketch both the function and transformed function on the same set of axes.
a f  (x + 2) b −f  (x) c f  (x) − 2 d f  (−x)
e 3 + f  (x − 1) f   f  (2x) g 2f  (x) h f  (0.5x)

Problem solving
i −2f  (x) j f  (−2x)

11
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

2 For each pair of functions f and g:

i Describe the transformation(s) of function f to function g.
ii Write g in terms of f.
iii Sketch both functions on the same set of axes.

( 12 ) , g ( x ) = 2
x
f ( x ) = 1.5 x, g ( x ) = −1.5 x     b f ( x ) =
x
a

c f ( x ) = 3 x , g ( x ) = 3 x +2 − 3      d f ( x ) = 0.5 x, g ( x ) = 0.52 x

( ) , g (x ) = 3 × ( )
x x
1 1
e f ( x ) = 2 x, g ( x ) = 20.5 x       f f ( x ) =
3 3

Problem solving
( 12 ) , g ( x ) = ( 12 )
x −2 x
g f (x ) =

3 On the same set of axes, sketch the graph of the function f and its three
transformations. Label each graph and any intercepts with the axes.
1
f ( x ) = 2 x ; f1 ( x ) = 2 2 x ; f 2 ( x ) = −2 × 20.5 x ; f 3 ( x ) = 2 × 2 −2 x

D
 Modelling with exponential functions
●● Do exponential models have limitations?

●● Do patterns lead to accurate predictions?

Exploration 5 Bank accounts

In this exploration you will investigate how much $1 can grow at an interest usually pay
rate of 100%, when the interest is compounded at different intervals. compound interest
per annum, which
1 Find the amount $1 is worth at the end of one year at 100% interest.
means the interest
2 Find the amount $1 is worth at the end of one year at 100% interest is calculated and
compounded half-yearly. In the function y = a(1 + r)x, the initial added to the account
investment is $1, the growth rate is 100 = 50% = 0.5, and x = 2, as interest once a year.
2
is now compounded two times per year. Therefore, y = (1 + 0.5)2 or y = 1.52.
3 Find the amount $1 is worth at the end of one year at 100% interest
compounded quarterly (every 3 months). In this case, y = (1 + 0.25)4 or
y = 1.254.
4 Write down an exponential function representing the investment
of $1 at 100% interest compounded x times per year.
5 Use your function to find the amount your investment of $1 is worth at
the end of one year at 100% interest if it is compounded:
a monthly     b weekly       
c daily
d hourly      e each minute    f each second.
6 Graph your function. Determine if there is a limit to the amount the
$1 investment can grow in one year if it is compounded an infinite
number of times at 100% interest. Justify your answer.

12
 The limit to the amount that the $1 could grow in one year is $2.72, to
two decimal places. It is actually the number e, which is a special number
just like π, and is an infinite non-repeating number. It is called ‘e’ after
Leonhard Euler, the mathematician who first discovered it.

You have seen problems that model the growth of populations of people, bacteria,
and insects. Is such a model appropriate for all phases of population growth?

Reflect and discuss 2

An exponential model for population growth
can look like this one. The growth rate

Population size
of the population
●● What environmental factors are necessary accelerates
to sustain growth of a bacteria population?
What factors will limit this growth?
●● Sketch a graph that more accurately reflects 0 Time
population growth of bacteria over a long
period of time.
●● What environmental factors are necessary to sustain growth of
a human population? What environmental factors limit human
population growth?
●● Sketch a graph that more accurately reflects population growth of
humans over a long period of time.
●● Is your human growth graph different from your bacteria growth
graph? Why, or why not?
●● Research the types of functions used to more accurately model and
predict the growth of human populations over an extended period
of time.

Summary
An exponential function is of the form The exponential function y = bx does not
f (x) = a × bx, where a ≠ 0, b > 0, b ≠ 1. have any x-intercepts.
The independent variable x is the exponent. For b > 1, as x gets less and less, the function
approaches 0, but never equals 0.
In the standard form of the exponential function
y = a × bx: For 0 < b < 1, as x gets larger and larger, the
function approaches 0, but never equals 0.
●● the parameter a represents the initial amount
●● the parameter b represents the growth or For any value of b > 0 the function y = bx has a
reduction (decay) factor. horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
●● x is the independent variable (e.g. time) A horizontal asymptote is the line that the graph
●● y is the dependent variable (e.g. amount at of f (x) approaches as x gets larger and larger.
time x)

13
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

Exponential growth is modeled by y = a(1 + r)x When h < 0, the graph moves in the negative
where r is the growth rate in decimal form (the x-direction, to the left.
percentage expressed as a decimal). Exponential ●● y = f  (x) + k translates y = f  (x) by moving it k
decay is modeled by y = a(1 − r)x where r is the
units in the y-direction.
decay rate in decimal form.
When k > 0, the graph moves in the positive
Transformations of exponential functions
y-direction, up.
Reflection: For the exponential function f  (x) = a × bx:
When k < 0, the graph moves in the negative
The graph of y = −f  (x) is a reflection of the graph of y-direction, down.
y = f  (x) in the x-axis. ●● y = f  (x − h) + k translates y = f  (x) by h units in
The graph of y = f  (−x) is a reflection of the graph of the x-direction and k units in the y-direction.
y = f  (x) in the y-axis.
Dilation: For the exponential function f  (x) = a × bx:
Translation: For the exponential function
y = af  (x) is a vertical dilation of f  (x), scale factor a,
f  (x) = a × bx:
parallel to the y-axis.
●● y = f  (x − h) translates y = f  (x) by moving it h
y = f  (ax) is a horizontal dilation of f  (x), scale
units in the x-direction.
factor 1, parallel to the x-axis.
a
When h > 0, the graph moves in the positive
x-direction, to the right.

af  (x) f  (ax)
a>1 y af(x) f(x) y f(ax) f(x)

0 x 0 x
vertical dilation horizontal dilation
0<a<1 y f(x) af(x) y f(x) f(ax)

0 x 0 x

vertical dilation horizontal dilation

14
Mixed practice
1 Xixi bought a car five years ago for $18 000. 6 Gina invests $400 in a savings account that pays
It depreciates approximately 15% every year. 1.4% interest compounded annually.
a Write down the depreciation (decay) factor a State the growth factor on this investment.
for this problem. b Write down a function to model the growth
b Write down a function to model the of her savings.
depreciation of the car over time. c Determine how many years it will take for
c Find the value of her car now, to the nearest her savings to double.
$100. 7 Write these transformations in terms of the
function f  (x) = 2x when f is:
Problem solving
a reflected in the y-axis
2 A strain of bacteria is doubling in a laboratory
every 5 minutes. At midday there are 20 b translated 3 units to the left and 4 units down
bacteria. Determine the number of bacteria at c reflected in the x-axis
the end of one hour.
d dilated by scale factor 3 parallel to the x-axis
3 The isotope radium-226 has a half-life of
e dilated by scale factor 4 parallel to the y-axis.
approximately 1600 years. A sample has
10 000 nuclei. Determine how many nuclei will
be left after 150 years.
Problem solving
4 The pesticide DDT is banned in most countries 8 On the same set of axes, sketch the graph of the
because of its long-lasting toxic effects on function f and its three transformations. Label
humans and animals. The half-life of DDT is each graph and any intercepts with the axes.
approximately 15 years. A sample area of soil f  (x) = 4x       f1(x) = 42x
contains 100 g of DDT. Determine the amount 1
f2 (x) = −2 × 40.5x    f 3 ( x ) = 2 × 4 −2 x
of DDT in the soil after 70 years.
9 a Rewrite the function f  (x) = 9 x with a base of
5 The population of a town in 2010 was 38 720. 3 instead of 9. Then describe how you can
It was estimated that its population will grow graph this function using the base of 3,
at an annual rate of 2.68%. Determine the in the form y = 3ax.
population size in the year 2025, to the nearest
100 people. b Rewrite the function f (x) = 9x with a base of 81.
Then describe how you can graph this
function using 81 as a base, in the form y = 81ax.

15
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

Objective: D. Applying mathematics in real-life contexts

iii. apply the selected mathematical strategies successfully to reach a solution
In this Review in context you will apply exponential functions to determine the age of
fossils using carbon dating.

Review in context
Ötzi was found on 19 September 1991 by two You can use your function from
German tourists, Helmut and Erika Simon at question 1 to help you solve the
an elevation of 3210 meters (10 530 ft) on the following problems.
Austrian–Italian border. Because the body,
clothing and tools were so well preserved, the
Simons thought the man had died recently.
Problem solving
Scientists at the University of Innsbruck in 2 When it dies, an organism contains 30 000 nuclei
Austria used carbon dating to estimate that of 14C. Calculate the number of 14C nuclei in the
Ötzi died about 5300 years ago, making him organism after 11 400 years.
the oldest, best preserved mummy in the world. 3 The amount of 14C in a fossil is calculated to be
0.25 times the amount when the organism died.
Carbon dating of fossils is based upon the decay of Calculate the approximate age of the fossil.
14
C, a radioactive isotope of carbon with a relatively
4 A fossil bone is approximately 16 500 years old.
long half-life of about 5700 years.
Estimate the fraction of 14C still in the fossil.
All living organisms get 14C from the atmosphere. 5 Only 6% of the original amount of 14C remains
When an organism dies, it stops absorbing 14C, in a fossil bone. Estimate how many years
which begins to decay exponentially. Carbon dating ago it died.
compares the amount of 14C in fossil remains with
the amount in the atmosphere, to work out how 6 Calculate the approximate percentage of 14C left
much has decayed, and therefore how long ago the in a fossil bone sample after 35 000 years.
organism died. 7 Analysis on an animal bone fossil at an
archeological site reveals that the bone has lost
1 Let N0 = the initial amount of 14C at the time
between 90% and 95% of its 14C. Determine an
of death.
approximate interval for the possible ages of the
Let x = the number of half-lives, where each bone.
half-life is 5700 years. 8 Using your function, explain why fossils older
Let N = the amount present after x number of than 50 000 years may have an undetectable
half-lives. amount of 14C.

Write an exponential function relating

N0, x, and N.

16
E10.R2
Time for a change:
Logarithmic functions

Objectives Inquiry questions

Drawing graphs of logarithmic functions What does a logarithmic function
F
●● ●●

●● Finding the inverse of an exponential function look like?

●● Justifying algebraically and graphically that ●● How are logarithmic functions related
a logarithmic function and the corresponding to exponential functions?
exponential function are mutual inverses What are the properties of logarithmic
C
●●
●● Identifying and applying function functions?
transformations on graphs of logarithmic ●● How are the properties of logarithmic
functions functions related to those of exponential
functions?
How do you transform logarithmic
D
●●

functions?
●● Is change measurable and predictable?
ATL

Critical-thinking

Draw reasonable conclusions and generalizations

17
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

You should already know how to:

●● rewrite exponential statements as 1 Write y = 5x as a logarithmic
logarithmic statements and vice statement.
versa 2 Write y = log7 x as an exponential
statement.
●● find the inverse of a function 3 Find the inverse of the functions:
a f ( x ) = 3x + 2
b g ( x ) = x2 − 1
●● describe transformations on 4 Describe the transformations on
exponential functions the graph of y = 3 x that give the
graph of y = 2 × 3 x − 1.
●● justify algebraically and 5 Justify algebraically and
graphically that two functions graphically that the function
are mutual inverses 5
f ( x ) = is its own inverse.
x

F From exponential to logarithmic functions

●● What does a logarithmic function look like?
●● How are logarithmic functions related to exponential functions?

Objective B: Investigating patterns

ii. describe patterns as general rules consistent with findings
In Exploration 1, you will need to find the correct rules for the patterns you generate
in order to solve the given problem.

Exploration 1
1 Fold an A4 size piece of paper in half. You now have two layers.
Assume the thickness of the paper is 0.05 mm. The total thickness
of the folded paper is 0.1 mm.

A4 size paper is part

of the international
standard used in most
countries around the
world. In the USA
thickness = 0.05 mm and Canada, ‘Letter’
0. 1 mm size is the standard,
one layer two layers
measuring 8.5 by
2 Fold the paper in half again, and write down the number of layers and 11.0 inches.
the total thickness of the folded paper. Repeat once more.
3 Find a function f for the number of layers of the folded paper in terms of
the number of folds x.
4 Write down a function g for the total thickness of the folded paper in
terms of the number of folds x.

Continued on next page

18
 5 Use function g to find the total thickness of the folded paper after :
a 10 folds b 20 folds c 30 folds
6 Use function f to determine how many folds give:
a 10 layers b 20 layers c 30 layers
7 Use function g to determine how many folds give a total thickness of :
a 10 cm b 1m c 10 m d 1 km
8 The average distance from Earth to the Moon is 384 400 km. Determine
the number of folds needed to give a total thickness of 384 400 km.

Reflect and discuss 1

●● The world record for folding an A4 sheet of paper in half is seven
times. It is mathematically impossible to fold a sheet of A4 paper
more than seven times. Why do you think this is? Think about the
relationship of the area of the paper to the number of folds of
the paper.
●● Do you think it is possible to fold a larger piece of paper more than
seven times? Explain.
●● In 2002, a 16-year-old American student, Britney Gallivan,
demonstrated that a roll of paper 1200 m long could be folded in half
πt
12 times. She developed the formula L = (2n + 4) (2n − 4), where L is
6
the length of the paper, t is its thickness, and n is the number of folds.
Use her formula to find the thickness of the paper she used.
●● Britney Gallivan held the world record for paper folding until a
group of students at a school in Massachusetts showed that paper
can be folded 13 times. This paper was 0.058 mm thick. Use the
formula to find the length of the paper that was folded 13 times.
●● For paper 0.058 mm thick, how long would a sheet of paper need
to be in order to fold it 14 times?

Exploration 1 shows that the inverse of an exponential 1.1

function is a logarithmic function. For example, for y = 2x, y

the equivalent logarithmic statement is log 2 y = x . y=x

Interchanging the x and y in the logarithmic expression y = 2x

gives the inverse function y = log 2 x .
Graphing y = 2 x and y = log 2 x together verifies that they are
f1(x) = 2 x f2(x) = log 2 x
mutual inverses, since their graphs are reflections of each other
0 x
in the line y = x.
To find the inverse of an exponential function y = a x, use the
equivalent logarithmic statement log a y = x , then interchange the
x and y to obtain y = log a x . The domain of the exponential
function y = a x is , and its range is +. So the domain of its inverse
y = log a x is +, but the range is  − {0}, since log a x ≠ 0.

19
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

The inverse of an exponential function is the corresponding logarithmic

function. The inverse of f ( x ) = a x is f −1 ( x ) = log a x and vice versa.

Practice 1
1 State the inverse function of f  ( x ).
a f ( x ) = 4x b f ( x ) = log 6 x c f ( x ) = ln x
3lnx 2
d f ( x ) = 3 log 5 x e f (x ) = f f ( x ) = (11x )
4 3

Problem solving
2 The population of seagulls P in a coastal village can be modelled by the
exponential equation P ( x ) = 15 × 1.15 x , where x is in months.
a Draw the graph of P (on your GDC) and state P0, the initial seagull
population.
b State the inverse function.
c Draw the graph of the inverse function on the same axes.
d Using the graphs, find how long it would take for the population to
reach 20 seagulls.

C Properties of logarithmic functions

●● What are the properties of logarithmic functions?
●● How are the properties of logarithmic functions related to those
of exponential functions?
ATL

Exploration 2
1 Graph the function y = log a x and add a slider for the parameter a.
Experiment with different values of a > 1.
1.1

y
4
3
2 f1(x) = log a x
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
−1
−2 a=2
−3
0 10
−4

2 a State what happens to the value of y as a increases.

b State the domain and range of the function.
c State any asymptotes of the function.
d State whether the function is concave up or concave down.

Continued on next page

20
 e Does the x-intercept remain the same for all values of a ? Explain.
f Determine if the function has a y-intercept. Explain.
g Explain why x cannot be less than or equal to 0.
3 Graph the function y = log a x for different values of a, where 0 < a < 1.
1.1

y
3 a
2 0 1
f3(x) = log 0.3 x
1

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−2 f2(x) = log 0.5 x
−3

a State what happens to the value of y as a increases in the interval (0, 1).
b Repeat steps 2 b–g for this graph.
4 Explain how graphs of logarithmic functions with different bases are
alike, and how they are different.
5 Summarize your results in a table like this: y = ax y = logax
domain
range
equation of asymptote
intercept(s)

Properties of graphs of logarithmic functions

y y

y = log x x ; when a > 1 y = log x x ; when 0 < a < 1

0 1 x 0 x
1

  

●● A logarithmic function is of the form y = log a x , where a ∈  +, a ≠ 1.

Its domain is  + and its range is  − {0}.
●● All graphs of logarithmic functions of the form y = log a x have
x-intercept (1, 0) and vertical asymptote x = 0.

Continued on next page

21
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

●● The shape of the graph is determined by the base a. For a > 1, the
graph is concave down and increasing. For 0 < a < 1, the graph is
concave up and decreasing.
●● The value of a controls how rapidly the graph is increasing or decreasing.

Example 1
Find the inverse of f ( x ) = 2 x − 3 and verify your result graphically. State the
domain and range of the function and its inverse.

y = 2x − 3 Interchange the x and y variables.

x= 2y − 3
log 2 x = y − 3 Rewrite as a logarithmic statement.
y = log 2 x + 3

f −1 ( x ) = log 2 x + 3.
Graph f and f  −1 and confirm that f and
Graphically:
f  −1 are reflections of each other in y = x.

Since f and f −1 are reflections of each other 1.1

in the line y = x, they are mutual inverses.

y
Domain of f = , range of f =  +. f2(x) = log 2 x + 3

Domain of f −1 =  + ; range of f −1 = .

f1(x) = 2 x − 3
0 x

y=x

Reflections and their physical properties are well known for just about
every type of wave you can think of. Geologists study seismic waves;
echoes and sonic effects are studied in acoustics; and of course, reflections
are observed with many types of electromagnetic wave, including visible
light, which often produces beautiful and interesting images. Perhaps not
coincidentally, reflection can also mean the act of peaceful meditation.

Objective C: Communicating
iii. move between different forms of mathematical representation
In Exploration 3 you will move between graphs, tables and equations, and different
forms of logarithmic functions.

22
Exploration 3
1 Here is the graph of a logarithmic function y = log a x , with its table of
values. Explain how you can find a using the table of values.
1.1

1. 0.
y
2. 0.63093
3. 1.
1
4. 1.26186
5. 1.46497
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x 6. 1.63093
7. 1.77124
−1
8. 1.89279
9. 2.
−2 10. 2.0959

2 Copy the graph from step 1. Explain how you can draw the inverse of
the function. Draw the graph of its inverse function.
3 Identify the coordinates on the graph of the function and its inverse that
allow you to find a in both.
4 Use what you learned in steps 1–3 to find a in this graph of y = log a x .
1.1

1. 0.
y
2. .5.

4 3. −1.
4. −1.58496
2 5. −2.
6. −2.32193
0 7. −2.58496
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
−2 8. −2.80735
9. −3.
−4 10. −3.16993

5 Approximate the value of a from this graph and table of values for
y = log a x . State what you think the exact value of a might be. Explain.
1.1

1. 0.
y
2. 0.693147
4 3. 1.09861
4. 1.38629
2
5. 1.60944
6. 1.79176
0
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x 7. 1.94591
−2 8. 2.07944
9. 2.19722
−4 10. 2.30259

6 Explain an easy way to determine the unknown base of a logarithmic

function y = log a x from its graph or table of values.

23
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

The graph of y = log a x passes through the point (a, 1).

Practice 2
1 Match each graph to its function.
a f  ( x ) = log2 x b f  ( x ) = log5 x c f  ( x ) = log 0.3 x

y A y B y C
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1

0
−2 −1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6x −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6x −2 −1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
x
−1 −1 −1
−2 −2 −2
−3 −3 −3
−4 −4 −4

2 The table shows the height in meters of a silver maple tree, measured at the
end of each year. The height data can be approximately modelled by the
function y = log a x .

Age of tree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x (years)
Height
0.1 3.5 6 7.5 9 10 10.5 11.5 12 12.5
y (meters)
a Plot these values on a graph and estimate the value of a.
b Find the inverse of this function, and state its domain and range.
c Confirm graphically that the function in b is the inverse of the function
you found in a.
3 Each graph below represents a function of the form f  ( x ) = loga x.
For each graph:
i state the natural domain and the range of the function
ii state the base of the logarithmic function.
a y b y c y
2 2 2

1 1 1

−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1 −1 −1

−2 −2 −2

−3 −3 −3

−4 −4 −4

−5 −5 −5

24
 4 For each function below:
i state the natural domain and range of the function
ii find the inverse of the function, and state any domain restrictions on the
function in order for the inverse to be a function
iii confirm graphically that the function you found is the inverse of the
original function.
a f ( x ) = ex + 2 b f ( x ) = 3 log( x + 2) c f ( x ) = 4 log(1 + 2 x )
d f ( x ) = 2 − log(3 x − 2) e f ( x ) = ln(2 x ) − 4

Problem solving
5 Explain how the change of base property of logarithms ensures that every
logarithmic function of the form y = log a x can be expressed in the form
y = b ln x .
6 For each description below, write down a function with the given
characteristics.
a A logarithmic function, passing through (1, 0) and (4, 2), domain = +.
b An exponential function whose inverse is f   −1( x ) = 2 log5 x + 7.
1
c A logarithmic function, passing through (5, −1), (1, 0) and ⎛⎝⎜ , 2⎞⎟ .
25 ⎠

D Transformations of logarithmic functions


●● How do you transform logarithmic functions?
●● Is change measurable and predictable?
ATL

Exploration 4
1 State the effect of each transformation on the graph of f ( x ).
a f  (−x ) b −f  ( x ) c af  ( x ) d f  (ax )
e f  ( x − h ) f f  ( x ) + k g f ( x − h) + k
2 Using a graphing tool, verify that the transformations in step 1 have
the same effect on the graph of y = log4 x. Draw a graph of f  ( x ) and
the transformed graph to demonstrate what you have discovered.
Summarize your results in a table.
3 Confirm your results with another function of the form y = loga x.
4 For each of the transformations in step 1, indicate which property it
affects (domain, range, x-intercept, asymptote) and how.

25
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

Transformations of exponential functions

Reflection:
For the logarithmic function f ( x ) = log a x :
●● the graph of y = − f ( x ) is the reflection of y = f ( x ) in the x-axis.
●● the graph of y = f (− x ) is the reflection of y = f ( x ) in the y-axis.
Translation:
For the logarithmic function f ( x ) = log a x :
●● y = f ( x ) + k translates y = f ( x ) by k units in the y-direction.
When k > 0, the graph moves in the positive y-direction (up).
When k < 0, the graph moves in the negative y-direction (down).
●● y = f ( x − h ) translates y = f ( x ) by h units in the x-direction.
When h > 0, the graph moves in the positive x-direction (to the right).
When h < 0, the graph moves in the negative x-direction (to the left).
Dilation:
For the logarithmic function f ( x ) = log b x :
●● y = af ( x ) is a vertical dilation of f ( x ), scale factor a, parallel to the
y-axis.
1
●● y = f (ax ) is a horizontal dilation of f ( x ), scale factor , parallel to the
a
x-axis.
af  ( x ) f  (ax )
y y
f(x) = 4log x
f(x) = log(3x)
f(x) = log x
f(x) = log x
0 x 0 x

1
vertical dilation scale factor 4 horizontal dilation scale factor
3
y y

f(x) = log x f(x) = log x

0 x 0 x
1
f(x) = log x 1
4 f(x) = log x
3

1
vertical dilation scale factor horizontal dilation scale factor 3
4

26
Example 2
Describe the transformations on f ( x ) = log 3 x to get g ( x ) = 3 log 3 ( x + 4).

f ( x ) = log 3 x to f1 ( x ) = log 3 ( x + 4) is a translation of 4 units Work outward from the variable.

in the negative x-direction.
f1 ( x ) = log 3 ( x + 4) to g ( x ) = 3 log 3 ( x + 4) is a vertical dilation,
scale factor 3.

Practice 3
1 Describe the transformations applied to f  ( x ) to get g ( x ).
a f ( x ) = log 4 x ; g ( x ) = log 4 ( x − 7) + 1
b f ( x ) = log 8 x ; g ( x ) = 2 log 8 x − 3
c f ( x ) = log 2 x ; g ( x ) = log 2 (6 x ) − 4
d f ( x ) = log 5 x ; g ( x ) = − 4 log 5 ( x + 2) + 8
e f ( x ) = 2 log 3 ( x + 1) − 5 ; g ( x ) = 6 log 3 ( x − 4) + 2

Problem solving
2
f f ( x ) = log 7 x ; g ( x ) = log7 (3x + 12) − 10
3

2 Describe the transformations applied to f ( x ) = ln x to give:

a g ( x ) = ln( x − 3) + 2 b h ( x ) = 0.5 ln x − 1
c j ( x ) = ln(2 x ) − 1 d k ( x ) = 2 ln x + 1
e m( x ) = −3 ln( x + 1) f n ( x ) = ln (0.5 x ) + 2
1
g p ( x ) = −2 ln(5 x ) − 3 h q ( x ) = ln(2 x − 6) + 4
5

3 Each graph shows an original function f  ( x ), labelled A, and transformed function, labelled B.
For each one, describe the transformation(s). Hence write down the equation of the transformed
function in terms of f.
a y    b y    c y
2.5 1.5 4
B
2 1 A 3
1.5 A B 0.5 2
1 1
0 x
0.5 −4 −2 2 4 6 A
−0.5
0 x
−1 2 4 6 8 10
0 x −1
−4 −2 2 4 −1.5
−0.5 −2
−1 −2 B
−3
−1.5 −2.5
−4
Problem solving
⎡ 1⎞ ⎤
4 Draw the graphs of f ( x ) = lnx and g(x) = ln ⎢2 ⎛⎜⎝ x − ⎟ on the same set of axes.
⎣ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Describe the transformations on the graph of f that give the graph of g.
5 Draw the graphs of f ( x ) = log 5 x and h ( x ) = − log 5[5( x + 2)] on the same set
of axes. Describe the transformations on the graph of f that give the graph of h.

27
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

Summary
A logarithmic function is of the form y = log a x , ●● the graph of y = f (− x ) is the reflection of
where a ∈ +, a ≠ 1. Its domain is + and its y = f ( x ) in the y-axis.
range is − {0}, since x cannot take the value 0.
Translation:
The inverse of the inverse of an exponential
For the logarithmic function f ( x ) = log b x :
function is the corresponding logarithmic function.
−1 ( x )
●● y = f ( x ) + k translates y = f ( x ) by k units in
The inverse of f ( x ) = a x is f = log a x and
the y-direction.
vice versa.
When k > 0, the graph moves in the positive
Graphs of logarithmic functions
y-direction (up).
●● All graphs of logarithmic functions of the form
When k < 0, the graph moves in the negative
y = log a x have x-intercept (1, 0) and vertical
y-direction (down).
asymptote x = 0.
●● y = f ( x − h ) translates y = f ( x ) by h units in
●● The shape of the graph is determined by the
the x-direction.
base a. For a > 1, the graph is concave down
and increasing. For 0 < a < 1, the graph is When h > 0, the graph moves in the positive
concave up and decreasing. x-direction (to the right).
●● The value of a controls how rapidly the graph When h < 0, the graph moves in the negative
is increasing or decreasing. x-direction (to the left).
●● The graph of y = log a x passes through the Dilation:
point (a, 1).
For the logarithmic function f ( x ) = log a x :
Transformations of logarithmic functions ●● y = bf ( x ) is a vertical dilation of f ( x ), scale
Reflection: factor b, parallel to the y-axis.
For the logarithmic function f ( x ) = log b x : ●● y = f (bx ) is a horizontal dilation of f ( x ) ,
1
●● the graph of y = − f ( x ) is the reflection of scale factor parallel to the x-axis.
b
y = f ( x ) in the x-axis.

Mixed practice
1 Match the function with its graph:
a y = log 5 x b y = log 5 (− x ) c y = log 0.5 x

A B C
y y y

0 x 0 x
−1 0 x 1 1

28
2 While training for a race, Joseph tracks his 4 Describe the transformation(s) necessary to
average speed for a 10 km run. The data, change the graph of f ( x ) = log a x into the graph
shown in the table below, can be approximately of the given function, assuming the base remains
modelled by the function s = log aw + 14, the same. Where more than one transformation
where s = speed and w = week of training. is needed, make sure you write them in the
correct order.
Week Speed (km/h)
a y = log 5 x + 2 b  y = log 7 ( x + 2)
1 14
c y = ln ( x − 2) − 3 d  y = ln(− x ) + 2
2 14.88
x
3 15.39 e y = log ⎛⎜⎝ ⎞⎟⎠ f     y = ln(2 − x )
4
4 15.76 g y = −2 log 3 (− x ) h  y = 2 log 8 ( x − 2) − 1
5 16.04 i y = −2 ln(1 − x ) + 2
6 16.27
7 16.47
Problem solving
8 16.64 5 Sketch the graphs of f ( x ) = ln x and
g ( x ) = −7 ln (3 x − 12) + 1 on the same set of axes.
9 16.79 Describe the transformations on the graph of
10 16.92 f to give the graph of g.
a Explain why a logarithmic model is a good fit 6 Sketch the graphs of f ( x ) = log x and
for this kind of data. 1
g ( x ) = log(2 − x ) on the same set of axes.
4
b Plot these values on a graph and estimate the Describe the transformations on the graph of f to
value of a. give the graph of g.
c Find the inverse of this function. State the 7 The data in the table here follow an exponential
relationship that the inverse function represents. model of the form y = a x + k.
3 For each function in parts a to e:
1 3
i state the natural domain and range of the x 0 2
1 2
function
y 4 5 7 11
ii find the inverse of the given function, and state
any domain restrictions on the original function a Find the inverse of this exponential function.
in order for the inverse to be a function b Describe the different ways you can find this
iii confirm graphically that the function you inverse function.
found is the inverse of the original function.
a y = ln( x − 3)
b y = 5(70.2 x ) + 2
1
c y = log 2 (4 x − 8) − 5
2
log ( x + 1)
d y= 2
log 2 3

e y = 41 − x

29
 THIN K ING WI T H MODE L S

Review in context
In E6.1 you explored the logarithmic models 3 The amount of energy released during an
of some natural phenomena. The questions earthquake can be modelled by the function
here explore the graphs of these phenomena by r = 0.67 log E − 7.6, where r is the number on the
considering the transformations on their graphs. Richter scale, and E is the energy released by
the earthquake in ergs.
1 pH is calculated using the logarithmic formula
pH = − log10 (H + ) . a By comparing this model to the standard
logarithmic function f ( x ) = log x , describe,
Using transformations of functions, describe
 using transformations of functions:
the difference in graphs of this model and the
standard logarithmic model y = log x . i the effect of the scale factor 0.67 on
the graph of f ( x ), and the name of this
2 The formula for modelling the magnitude transformation
M of an earthquake using the Richter scale is
Ic ii the effect of the parameter − 7.6, and the
M = log10 , where I c is the intensity of the name of this transformation.
In
‘movement’ of the earth from the earthquake
b The range for this model is the number on the
and I n is the the intensity of the ‘movement’
Richter scale, 0 ≤ r ≤ 10.
of the earth on a normal day-to-day basis.
Determine the domain of this model.
a A series of earthquakes were recorded in
Russia, which followed the standard model. c Explain why the graph of this model has no
A series of earthquakes were recorded in y-intercept. State the kind of transformation
Mexico which were 4 times this intensity. on the graph that would give a y-intercept.

Describe the graph of these earthquakes using 4 Height above sea level and atmospheric air
transformations of functions. pressure can be modelled by the function
p ⎞
h = −26 400 ln ⎛⎜⎝ ⎟
b In Australia, the magnitude of the quakes 2120 ⎠
is known to be double the magnitude of the where h is measured in feet, and p in pounds

Russian quakes. Describe how the graph of per square foot. Describe this model as a
this model would differ from the standard transformation of the graph of y = ln x .
model using transformations of functions.

30
E10.R3
Never-ending
patterns:
Fractals

Fractal geometry is a field of mathematics that developed in the 1970s,

mainly through the work of Benoit Mandelbrot, an American–French–Polish
mathematician. Fractals are a visual representation of a repeating pattern that
begin fairly simply but become increasingly complex. Many objects in nature
are fractals, for example, a coastline, ferns, clouds, snowflakes, blood vessels,
etc. Probably the most famous fractal is the Mandelbrot set, pictured below.

The activity below will help you become familiar with some properties of
fractals.

Activity
The Koch Snowflake is a geometric pattern called a fractal. It is formed by
starting with an equilateral triangle (Stage 1) and then replacing each line
with four smaller lines, like this:

Objective B: Investigating patterns

ii. describe patterns as general rules consistent with findings
Make a mathematical observation about the patterns; for example, a rule linking
the stage number to the perimeter, or some conclusion about the eventual area of
the shape.

Continued on next page

31
 S PATI A L RE A S ONING

Investigate the geometric properties of the Koch Snowflake by answering

some or all of these questions:
Explore how the stage number relates to:
● the number of line segments in the diagram
● the length of each of the line segments
● the total perimeter
● the number of triangles in the diagram
● the area of each triangle in the diagram
● the total area.

You could investigate other fractals, such as the Gosper Island or

Sierpinski Triangle, which you can search for online.

Stage 1 Stage 2

Stage 3 Stage 4

32