Food Analysis and Sensory Evaluation

Definition of Food Analysis and Sensory Evaluation

Food Analysis:
Food analysis, also called objective evaluation, is the discipline dealing with the development,
application and study of analytical procedures for characterizing the properties of foods in terms of
chemical composition, safety, quality and nutritional value.
Sensory Evaluation:
When the quality of a food product is assessed by means of human sensory organs i.e., sight,
smell, touch, taste and hearing, the evaluation is said to be sensory or subjective evaluation.
The purpose of food analysis and sensory evaluation is to confirm the safety and quality of food.

Importance of Food Analysis and Sensory Evaluation

 Investigations in food science and technology, whether by the food industry, governmental
agencies, or universities, often require determination of food composition and characteristics.
 Trends and demands of consumers, national and international regulations, and realities of the
food industry challenge food scientists as they work to monitor food composition and to ensure
the quality and safety of the food supply.
 The growth and infrastructure of the model food distribution system heavily relies on food
analysis as a tool for new product development, quality control, regulatory enforcement, and
problem solving.
 All food products require analysis of various characteristics (i.e., chemical composition,
microbial content, physical properties, sensory properties) as part of a quality management
program, from raw ingredients, through processing, to the final product.
 Of course, food analysis is also used extensively for research on foods and food ingredients.

Reasons for Food Analysis and Sensory Evaluation

1. Quality control- to routinely monitor food quality.

2. Food safety- to detect spoilage which may be biological or chemical such as browning, rancidity
etc.
3. Government regulations-
(a) Nutrition labeling
(b) Standards – mandatory and voluntary
(c) Food inspection and grading
(d) Authenticity
4. Research and development
5. Consumer satisfaction- to ensure that the food products being produced are acceptable to the
customer.
6. Product information- to obtain information about composition, appearance, texture, flavor and
shelf life of food.

Types of food analysis

Proximate analysis:
Proximate analysis stands for a method, which determines the values of the macronutrients in food
samples such as protein, fat and carbohydrate.
Nutrition analysis:
Nutrition analysis refers to the process of determining the nutritional content of foods and food
products such as vitamin.
Typical analysis:
Typical analysis is used to describe the nitty-gritty diet components like sodium, phosphorus, and
calcium that ensure our diets are complete and balanced to support all stages of your pet's life.
Trace components analysis:
It is the process of determining preservatives, flavors and colors.
Contaminant analysis:
This is the process of identifying the presence of pesticide residues, aflatoxins, heavy metals etc.
Parameter analysis:
This is the process of determining various parameters of food such as physical parameters i. e.
density, chemical parameters i. e. fat quality, physicochemical parameters i. e. p H etc.

Working Procedure of Food Analysis

Food
Sampling

Representative Sample

Extraction

Extract
Clean-up

Cleaned Extract

Identification of Components

Quantification of Individual Components

Food Sampling, Sampling Methods and Sampling Plan

Food sampling
Food sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population
for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole populations.
Reasons of food sampling:
Ideally, the analyst would like to analyze every part of the material to obtain an accurate measure
of the property of interest, but in most cases, this is practically impossible. Because-
1. Analytical techniques destroy the food and so there would be nothing left to sell if it were all
analyzed.
2. Many analytical techniques are time consuming.
3. Expensive.
4. Labor intensive.
5. It is not economically feasible to analyze large amounts of material
6. There are some foods that are so difficult to get access to that only a sample can be used.
It is therefore normal practice to select a fraction of the whole material for analysis. Selection of an
appropriate fraction of the whole material is one of the most important stages of food analysis
procedures, and can lead to large errors when not carried out correctly.

Quantity of Food Samples to be collected for Analysis

Under the provision of Rule No. 13 (FSSA), the quantity of sample of food to be sent to the Food
Analyst / Director for analysis shall be as specified in the table below:
Article of food Approximate quantity
to be supplied
1. Milk 500 ml
2. Sterilized Milk/UHT Milk 250 ml
3. Malai/Dahi 200 gm
4. Yoghurt/Sweetened Dahi 300 gm
5. Chhana/Paneer/Khoya/Shrikhand 250 gm
6. Cheese/Cheese spread 200 gm
7. Evaporated Milk/Condensed Milk 200 gm
8. Ice-Cream/Softy/Kulfi/Ice Candy/Ice lolly 300 gm
9. Milk Powder/Skimmed Milk Powder 250 gm
10. Infant Food/Weaning Food 500 gm
11. Malt Food/Malted Milk Food 300 gm
 Article of food Approximate quantity
to be supplied
12. Butter/Butter Oil/Ghee/Margarine/Cream/ Bakery Shortening 200 gm
13. Vanaspati, Edible Oils/Fats 250 gm
14. Carbonated Water 600 ml
15. Baking Powder 100 gm
16. Arrowroot/Sago 250 gm
17. Corn flakes/Macaroni Products/ Corn Flour/ Custard Powder 200 gm
18. Spices, Condiments and Mixed Masala(Whole) 200 gm
19. Spices, Condiments and Mixed Masala (Powder) 250 gm
20. Saffron 20 gm
21. Icing Sugar, Honey, Synthetic Syrup 250 gm
22. Cane Sugar/Cube sugar/Refined Sugar/Dextrose, Misri/ 200 gm
Dried Glucose Syrup.
23. Artificial Sweetener 100 gm
24. Fruit Juice/Fruit Drink/Fruit Squash 400 ml
25. Tomato Sauce/Ketchup/Tomato Paste, Jam/ Jelly/ Marmalade/ 300 gm
Tomato Puree/Vegetable Sauce
26. Non Fruit Jellies 200 gm
27. Pickles and Chutneys 250 gm
28. Oilseeds/Nuts/Dry Fruits 250 gm
29. Tea/Roasted Coffee/Roasted Chicory 200 gm
30. Sugar Confectionery/Chewing Gum/Bubble Gum 200 gm
31. Chocolates 200 gm
32. Edible Salt 200 gm
33. Atta/Maida/Suji/Besan/Other Milled Product/ Paushtik and 500 gm
Fortified Atta/Maida
34. Biscuits and Rusks 200 gm
35. Bread/Cakes/Pastries 250 gm
36. Vinegar/Synthetic Vinegar 300 gm
37. Food colour 25 gm
38. Natural Mineral water/Packaged Drinking water 4000 ml
39. Canned Foods 6 sealed cans
40. Prepared Food 500 gm
Sampling Method
A Sampling method means how a sample is selected from given population. The sampling method
employed for selecting a sample is important in determining how closely the sample represents the
population.
There are various methods of sampling i. e. random sampling, systemic sampling etc.
 Random sampling
Random sampling is a part of the sampling technique in which each sample has an equal
probability of being chosen. A sample chosen randomly is meant to be an unbiased representation
of the total population. Random Sampling is two types-
 Simple random sampling
The simplest method of selecting a random sample is lottery method.
 Suppose, we have 500 units in population and we wish to select 50 units out of them.
 So, assign the numbers 1 to 500 units of population.
 Prepare slips bearing numbers 1 to 500 which are homogeneous in shape, size, color etc.
 These slips are shuffled and put in box.
 50 slips are selected.
 The units with the numbers on the slips selected will constitute a random sample.

 Stratified random sampling

 Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division of a
population into smaller homogeneous groups known as strata. Random samples are then
selected from each stratum.
 For example- A food analyst who would like to know the nutritional composition of
banana. To do this, he would create some homogenous groups of bananas based on
varieties, maturity, region etc. A random sample from each stratum is taken.

 Systemic sampling
 This technique is used when complete list of all units in the population is available.
 First unit is selected by method of random sampling and the remaining units are selected
according to some predetermined pattern involving regular spacing of units.
 Suppose there are 500 units in the population and we wish to select a sample size 10.
 Then we say that out of every 50 (=500/10) units, we have to select one unit.
 Then select a random number from 1 to 50.
 Suppose the random number selected is 27, then the systemic sample will consist of the
units bearing numbers 27, 77, 127…, 477.
 It is useful only when complete and up to date frame is available and units are arranged in
some specific order.
Sampling plan
A sampling plan is a detailed outline of the sample size, the locations from which the sample
should be selected, the method used to collect the sample, the method used to preserve them prior
to analysis, the measurements that will be taken, the time and the materials.
Factors affecting the choice of particular sampling plan
1. The purpose of the analysis
2. The property to be measured
3. The nature of the total population
4. The individual samples
5. The type of analytical technique used to characterize the samples.

Some of the most important considerations when developing or selecting an

appropriate sampling plan are discussed below:
1. Purpose of Analysis
The first thing to decide when choosing a suitable sampling plan is the purpose of the analysis.
Samples are analyzed for a number of different reasons in the food industry and this affects the
type of sampling plan used:
 Official samples: Samples may be selected for official or legal requirements by
government laboratories. These samples are analyzed to ensure that manufacturers are
supplying safe foods that meet legal and labeling requirements. An officially sanctioned
sampling plan and analytical protocol is often required for this type of analysis.
 Raw materials: Raw materials are often analyzed before acceptance by a factory, or
before use in a particular manufacturing process, to ensure that they are of an appropriate
quality.
 Finished products: Samples of the final product are usually selected and tested to ensure
that the food is safe, meets legal and labeling requirements, and is of a high and
consistent quality. Officially sanctioned methods are often used for determining
nutritional labeling.
 Research and Development: Samples are analyzed by food scientists involved in
fundamental research or in product development.
2. Nature of Measured Property
Once the reason for carrying out the analysis has been established it is necessary to clearly specify
the particular property that is going to be measured, e.g., color, weight, presence of extraneous
matter, fat content or microbial count. The properties of foods can usually be classified as either
attributes or variables. An attribute is something that a product either does or does not have, e.g., it
does or does not contain a piece of glass, or it is or is not spoilt. On the other hand, a variable is
some property that can be measured on a continuous scale, such as the
weight, fat content or moisture content of a material. Variable sampling usually requires less
samples than attribute sampling.
The type of property measured also determines the seriousness of the outcome if the properties of
the laboratory sample do not represent those of the population. For example, if the property
measured is the presence of a harmful substance (such as bacteria, glass or toxic chemicals), then
the seriousness of the outcome if a mistake is made in the sampling is much greater than if the
property measured is a quality parameter (such as color or texture).Consequently, the sampling
plan has to be much more rigorous for detection of potentially harmful substances than for
quantification of quality parameters.

3. Nature of Population
 A population may be either homogenous or heterogeneous: A homogeneous population
is one in which the properties of the individual samples are the same at every location
within the material (e.g., a tanker of well stirred liquid oil), whereas a heterogeneous
population is one in which the properties of the individual samples vary with location
(e.g., a truck full of potatoes). If the properties of a population were homogeneous then
there would be no problem in selecting a sampling plan because every individual sample
would be representative of the whole population. In practice, most populations are
heterogeneous and so we must carefully select a number of individual samples from
different locations within the population to obtain an indication of the properties of the
total population.

4. Nature of Test Procedure

The nature of the procedure used to analyze the food may also determine the choice of a particular
sampling plan, e.g., the speed, accuracy and cost per analysis, or whether the technique is
destructive or non-destructive. Obviously, it is more convenient to analyze the properties of many
samples if the analytical technique used is capable of rapid, low cost, nondestructive and accurate
measurements.

The steps involved in developing a sampling plan are:

1. Identify the parameters to be measured and the range of possible values.
2. Design a sampling scheme that details how and when samples will be taken
3. Select sample sizes
4. Design data storage formats
5. Assign roles and responsibilities
Preparation of Laboratory Samples
Once we have selected a sample that represents the properties of the whole population, we must
prepare it for analysis in the laboratory. The following steps must be implemented for the
preparation of laboratory samples-
1. Making Samples Homogeneous
The food material within the sample selected from the population is usually heterogeneous, i.e., its
properties vary from one location to another. It is usually necessary to make samples
homogeneous before they are analyzed, otherwise it would be difficult to select a representative
laboratory sample from the sample
2. Reducing Sample Size
Once the sample has been made homogeneous, a small more manageable portion is selected for
analysis. This is usually referred to as a laboratory sample, and ideally it will have properties
which are representative of the population from which it was originally selected. Sampling plans
often define the method for reducing the size of a sample in order to obtain reliable and repeatable
results.
3. Preventing Changes in Sample
Once we have selected our sample, we have to ensure that it does not undergo any significant
changes in its properties from the moment of sampling to the time when the actual analysis is
carried out, e.g., enzymatic, chemical, microbial or physical changes. There are a number of ways
these changes can be prevented.
 Enzymatic Inactivation: Many foods contain active enzymes they can cause changes in
the properties of the food prior to analysis, e.g., proteases, cellulases, lipases, etc. If the
action of one of these enzymes alters the characteristics of the compound being analyzed
then it will lead to erroneous data and it should therefore be inactivated or eliminated.
Freezing, drying, heat treatment and chemical preservatives (or a combination) are often
used to control enzyme activity, with the method used depending on the type of food
being analyzed and the purpose of the analysis.
 Lipid Protection: Unsaturated lipids may be altered by various oxidation reactions.
Exposure to light, elevated temperatures, oxygen or pro-oxidants can increase the rate at
which these reactions proceed. Consequently, it is usually necessary to store samples that
have high unsaturated lipid contents under nitrogen or some other inert gas, in dark
rooms or covered bottles and in refrigerated temperatures. Providing that they do not
interfere with the analysis antioxidants may be added to retard oxidation.
 Microbial Growth and Contamination: Microorganisms are present naturally in many
foods and if they are not controlled, they can alter the composition of the sample to be
analyzed. Freezing, drying, heat treatment and chemical preservatives (or a combination)
are often used to control the growth of microbes in foods.
  Physical Changes: A number of physical changes may occur in a sample, e.g., water may
be lost due to evaporation or gained due to condensation; fat or ice may melt or
crystallize; structural properties may be disturbed. Physical changes can be minimized by
controlling the temperature of the sample, and the forces that it experiences.
4. Sample Identification
Laboratory samples should always be labeled carefully so that if any problem develops its origin
can easily be identified. The information used to identify a sample includes: a) Sample description,
b) Time when sample was taken, c) Location from sample was taken d) Person who took the
sample, and e) Method used to select the sample. Each sample should be marked with a code on its
label that can be correlated to the notebook. Thus, if any problem arises, it can easily be identified.

Evaluation of Analytical Data

Whether analytical data are collected in a research laboratory, important decisions are made based on
the data. Appropriate data collection and analysis are critical to good decision making.

Measurement of Central Tendency

To increase accuracy and precision, as well as to evaluate these parameters, the analysis of a sample is
usually performed (repeated) several times. At least three assays are typically performed. Because we
are not sure which value is closest to the true value, we determine the mean (or average) using all the
values obtained and report the results of the mean. The mean is designated by the symbol x and
calculated according to the equation below:
x 1+ x 2+ x 3+… …+ xn Σxi
x= ¿
n n
where:
x = mean
x1, x2, …. xn = individually measured values (xi)
n = number of measurements

Measurement of Standard Deviation

The best and most commonly used statistical evaluation of the precision of analytical data is the
standard deviation. The standard deviation measures the spread of the experimental values and gives a
good indication of how close the values are to each other. It is calculated according to the following
equation:

where:
SD =
√ Σ(xi−x)2
n−1

SD = standard deviation
xi = individual sample values
x = true mean
n = total population of samples

Measurement of Coefficient of Variation

Once we have a mean and standard deviation, we must next determine how to interpret these numbers.
One easy way to get a feel for the standard deviation is to calculate what is called the coefficient of
variation (CV), also known as the relative standard deviation. It is calculated according to the following
equation:
SD
Coefficient of variation (CV) = × 100 %
x
As a rule, a CV below 5% is considered acceptable, although it depends on the type of analysis.

Mathematical Problem: Suppose we measured a sample of uncooked hamburger for percent moisture
content four times and obtained the following results: 64.53%, 64.45%, 65.10%, and 64.78%.
Determine the standard deviation and CV of percent moisture in uncooked hamburger. Is the precision
for this set of data acceptable?

Analysis of some parameters of food

Various parameters of food are analyzed in the laboratory of food industry such as moisture
content, ash content, pH content, acidity content, brix content, protein content, fat content,
carbohydrate content etc.

Choice of analytical methods

The nature of the sample and the specific reason for the analysis commonly dictate the choice of
analytical methods. Speed, precision, accuracy, robustness, specificity, and sensitivity are often key
factors in this choice. Validation of the method for the specific food matrix being analyzed is
necessary to ensure usefulness of the method. Making an appropriate choice of analytical technique for
a specific application requires a good knowledge of the various techniques.

Figure: Method selection in food analysis

For example, the choice of method to determine the salt content of potato chips would be different if it
is for nutrition labeling compared to quality control. The success of any analytical method relies on the
proper selection and preparation of the food sample, carefully performing the analysis, and doing the
appropriate calculations and interpretation of the data. Methods of analysis developed and endorsed by
several nonprofit scientific organizations allow for standardized comparisons of results between
different laboratories and for evaluation of less standard procedures. Such official methods are critical
in the analysis of foods, to ensure that they meet the legal requirements established by governmental
agencies.

Criteria for choice of food analysis methods: characteristics of a method

1. Inherent properties- Specificity/selectivity, Precision, Accuracy

2. Applicability of method to laboratory- Reagents, Equipment, Cost, Applicability to food/sample.
3. Usefulness- Time required, Reliability, Need.
4. Personnel- Safety, Procedures.
1. Analysis of Moisture Content
Moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a food material. Moisture content is one of
the most commonly measured properties of food materials.
It is important to food scientists for a number of different reasons:
1. Legal and Labeling Requirements: There are legal limits to the maximum or minimum amount
of water that must be present in certain types of food.
2. Economic: The cost of many foods depends on the amount of water they contain - water is an
inexpensive ingredient, and manufacturers often try to incorporate as much as possible in a food,
without exceeding some maximum legal requirement.
3. Microbial Stability: The propensity of microorganisms to grow in foods depends on their water
content. For this reason, many foods are dried below some critical moisture content.
4. Food Quality: The texture, taste, appearance and stability of foods depends on the amount of
water they contain.
5. Food Processing Operations: A knowledge of the moisture content is often necessary to predict
the behavior of foods during processing, e.g., mixing, drying, flow through a pipe or packaging.
It is therefore important for food scientists to be able to reliably measure moisture contents.
Determination of moisture content by oven drying method:
 The oven drying method is a thermogravimetric method (loss on drying) in which the
sample is dried for a defined period of time at constant temperature. The moisture content
is determined by weighing the sample before and after drying and determining the
difference.
 Oven dryer, crucible, balance and desiccator containing anhydrous silica gel are needed
in this method.
 The weight of an empty crucible and sample have to be taken. By placing the sample in
the crucible, the crucible has to place in the oven.
 Temperature of oven is fixed at 105±5 0C for 16 hrs to 24 hrs but this varies with sample
type. It will also vary if the oven contains a large number of samples or very wet samples.
 Then the sample is cooled in a desiccator up to room temperature and weight of dried
sample is taken.
 Again, the dried sample is kept in oven for 1-2 hrs. Then cooled and weight is taken.
Heating and cooling will be done up to the variation of weight of two successive is not
more than 3-5 mg. After completely drying, the final weight is taken.
The following formula is used for calculating moisture content-

Weight of sample before drying – Weight of sample after drying

Moisture content = × 100
Weight of sample before drying
%
2. Ash content
Ash is the inorganic residue remaining after the water and organic matter have been removed by
heating in the presence of oxidizing agents, which provides a measure of the total amount of
minerals within a food.
The ash constituents include larger amounts of potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium as
well as smaller quantities of aluminum, iron, copper, manganese or zinc, arsenic, iodine, fluorine
and other elements present in traces.
Importance of determining Ash content:
Determining the ash content may be important for several reasons-
 It is part of proximate analysis for nutritional evaluation.
 Ash content is essential to a food’s nutrition and longevity.
 Ashing is the first step in preparing a food sample for determination of specific
elemental analysis.
 Ash content is a widely accepted index of refinement of foods, such as wheat flour or
sugar.
So, determining ash content is very important in food analysis.

Determination of ash content:

 Crucible, muffle furnace and desiccator are needed in determining ash content. The
crucible must be cleaned and dried. The weight of an empty crucible and sample have to
be taken.
 Now, taking the sample in the crucible, the sample have to be burnt in the muffle furnace
carefully under high temperature about 5500C for 4 to 6 hrs.
 After burning, the crucible containing sample must be cooled in desiccator. The weight of
ash has to be taken.
The following formula is used for calculating ash content-
Weight of ash
Ash content = ×100 %
Weight of sample before burning
3. Acidity
Acidity is an expression of the content in percentage of acid in sample. It is an important
parameter in food. Acidity affects not only on flavor of the food item but also on the growth ability
of microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. Commonly, the higher the acidity of a food item,
the less likely are the chances that it is spoilt by microorganisms.

Determination of acid content of Tomato Sauce:

Principle:
Solution of a known quantity of tomato sauce to be analyzed in a mixture of distilled water followed by
acid present with a phenolphthalein solution by Sodium hydroxide.

Apparatus:
 Electronic precession balance.
 Magnetic Stirrer
 50/100 ml of conical flask.
 Measuring Cylinder
 Burette, Pipette
 Burette, Pipette sucker

Reagents:
 1% Phenolphthalein solution in ethyl alcohol (95%).
 0.1 N Sodium Hydroxide Solution
 Distilled Water

Sample: Tomato Sauce

Working Procedure:
 Weigh around 2.5 g of sample in the 50 ml of conical flask.
 Then add 30 ml of water by using a measuring cylinder.
 A magnetic stirrer bar put into it and transfer it on a magnetic stirrer machine to mix the solution
properly.
 After that, titrate the mixture with standard 0.1 N NaOH solution, using 2-3 drops of
Phenolphthalein solution.
 Take coloration persisting for 30 seconds during shaking as end point.

Calculation:
BR × N × eq . wt . of citric acid
Acidity ¿ × 100%
W × 1000

Here, BR= Burette Reading

N = Normality of alkali
W= Weight in gm of the sample.

Sensory Evaluation
Definition:
When the quality of a food product is assessed by means of human sensory organs i.e., sight,
smell, touch, taste and hearing, the evaluation is said to be sensory or subjective evaluation.
Sensory evaluation of food quality is essential in food industry in order to routinely monitor food
quality and to ensure that the foods being produced are acceptable to the customer.

Sensory characteristics of food

1. Appearance- Appearance means surface characteristics.
 Scrambled egg with a very dry surface is not acceptable.
 Lumps in a pudding which are not desirable can be judged by the eye.
 Sight plays a role in the assessment of the lightness of foods like the bread, cakes etc.
 Quality of fish can be ascertained by the brightness of the eyes of fish.
 Infestation with insects can be found out in brinjal by the appearance of black spots on it.
2. Color
 Ripeness of fruits like banana, tomato, mango, papaya etc. can be assessed by the color.
 The strength of coffee and tea is judged in part by the color of the beverages.
 The color of roast is used as an index to doneness.
3. Odor
 The pleasant sensations in eating come more from odor than from taste.
 The quality of food can be identified by odor.
 Rancidity is identified by odor of fat.
4. Taste
 Taste sensation are categorized as sweet, salt, sour or bitter.
 The sensation known as sour is associated with hydrogen ions supplied by acids.
 Salt taste is due to ions of salt. NaCl is said to be the only one with a pure salt sensation.
 Substances which elicit the sweet sensation are primarily organic compounds. Sugars are the
main source of sweetness in food.

5. Mouth feel
 Texture, consistency and hotness or burning sensation of pepper can be felt in the mouth.
6. Temperature:
 Hot and cold sensations contribute to the composite flavor of a food like coffee, soup or
ice cream.
 Thus, really hot coffee is not as bitter as that which has cooled in the cup, iced coffee is
not as bitter as that which is warm but not really hot.

7. Texture:
 Texture in ice cream depends upon the size of the crystals. How they feel on the tongue is
 characterized as coarse or fine.
 The brittleness of food is another aspect of texture.
 Tissues in a raw vegetable and fruit are brittle or crunchy i.e., apple and raw carrot.
8. Consistency:
 Consistency affects the quality of food.
 Temperature may affect the consistency of food e.g., ghee, butter, cheese and ice creams.
 Ice creams may be too hard or too soft which can be found out by mouth feel.
 Gravies, sauces and syrups range in consistency from thick to thin.

Factors that drive successful sensory testing

Successful sensory testing is driven by-
 setting clear objectives
 developing robust experimental strategy and design
 applying appropriate statistical techniques
 adhering to good ethical practice and
 successfully delivering actionable insights that are used to inform decision-making.
 appropriate training is crucial to ensure that the sensory professional has the necessary
technical capability and interpersonal skills.

The requirements of an ideal panel member for sensory evaluation

1) He should be able to discriminate easily between samples and should be able to distinguish
appreciable differences in taste and smell.
2) He should have good health. If he is suffering from cold his sensitivity may be affected.
3) He should not be habituated to chewing pan or supari.
4) He should be experienced in the particular field.
5) He should have interest in sensory analysis of samples and intellectual curiosity.
6) He should have ability to concentrate and derive proper conclusion.
7) Candidates possessing these qualities must be indexed with details of age, sex, specific likes and
dislikes availability.

Sensory Perception: The Human Senses

1. Vision
 The appearance of any object is determined by the sense of vision.
  Light waves reflected by an object enter the eye and fall on the retina.
 The retina contains receptor cells, known as rods and cones, which convert this light
energy into neural impulses that travel via the optic nerve to the brain.
 Cones are responsive to different wavelengths of light relating to ‘color’.
 Rods respond positively to white light and relay information concerning the lightness of
the color.
 The brain interprets these signals and we perceive the appearance (color, shape, size,
translucency, surface texture, etc.) of the objective.
2. Gustation
 The sense of taste involves the perception of non-volatile substances which, when
dissolved in water, oil or saliva, are detected by taste receptors in the taste buds located
on the surface of the tongue and other areas of the mouth or throat.
 The resulting sensations can be divided into five different taste qualities – salty, sweet,
sour, bitter and umami.
Examples of compounds that elicit particular tastes are given as follows:
 Salty substances: sodium chloride, potassium chloride
 Sweet substances: sucrose, glucose, aspartame
 Sour substances: citric acid, phosphoric acid
 Bitter substances: quinine, caffeine
 Umami substance: monosodium glutamate.

3. Olfaction
 Volatile molecules are sensed by olfactory receptors on the millions of hair-like cilia that
cover the nasal epithelium (located in the roof of the nasal cavity).
 Consequently, for something to have an odor or aroma, volatile molecules must be
transported in air to the nose.
 Volatile molecules enter the nose orthonasally during breathing/sniffing, or retronasally
via the back of the throat during eating.
 There are around 17,000 different volatile compounds.
 A particular odor may be made up of several volatile compounds, but sometimes
particular volatiles (character-impact compounds) can be associated with a particular
smell, e.g., iso-amyl acetate and banana/pear drop.
 Individuals may perceive and/or describe single compounds differently, e.g., hexenol can
be described as grass, green, unripe.
 Similarly, an odor quality may be perceived and/or described in different compounds, e.g.
minty is used to describe both menthol and carvone.

4. Touch (somesthesis, kinesthesis and chemesthesis)

 Somesthesis: The skin, including the lips, tongue and surfaces of the oral cavity, contains
many different tactile receptors that can detect sensations related to contact/touch, e.g.
force, particle size and heat.
 Kinesthesis: Nerve fibres in the muscles, tendons and joints sense tension and relaxation
 in the muscles, allowing the perception of attributes such as heaviness and hardness.
 Chemesthesis: Some chemical substances can stimulate the trigeminal nerves situated in
the skin, mouth and nose to give hot, burning, tingling, cooling or astringent sensations,
e.g. piperine in pepper, capsaicin in chilli pepper, carbon dioxide in fizzy drinks, coolants
in showers gel, warming compounds in muscle rubs and tannins in wine. When sensed in
the oral cavity, they form part of what are collectively known as mouth-feel attributes.

5. Audition
 Sound is sensed by millions of tiny hair cells in the ear that are stimulated by the
vibration of air from sound waves.
 The noise emitted by food during eating contributes to the perceived texture of a food,
e.g. crispness of an apple and fizz of a carbonated drink.
 When consumers eat food products, the sound waves produced can be conducted by the
air and/or bones in the jaw and skull. The latter is known as intra-oral perception.
6. Multimodal Perception
 Although distinct sensory organs exist for each of the different senses, it is important to
note that information from each of the sensory organs is often integrated in the brain.
 For example, the perception of flavor results from the interaction between taste, aroma,
texture, appearance and sound.
 Sound can also affect the perception of touch.
 The sensory professional should, therefore, be aware of how changes in one sensory
property can affect others.

Role of sensory evaluation

 In the early stages of product development, sensory testing can help identify the
important sensory attributes driving acceptability across a product category.
 It can identify sensory-based target consumer segments.
 Analyze competitor products and evaluate new concepts.
 Determine the impact of scaling up kitchen or pilot samples to large-scale production and
is invaluable in determining whether raw ingredient changes or modifications to the
production process, e.g. for cost reduction or change of supplier, will impact on sensory
quality and product acceptability.
 Can set consumer acceptability limits for sensory specifications used during quality
testing.
 Can inform understanding concerning product preferences and acceptability.
 Provide the data to support marketing claims such as ‘best ever’, ‘new creamier’, and
‘most preferred’.
 Evaluation Card/Score Card
The criteria of evaluation card/score card:
 The design of score cards for sensory evaluation is challenging and difficult because the
key characteristics of the product need to be evaluated on paper in a way that permits the
judges to transmit their assessments of the samples accurately to the researcher.
 The questionnaire of score card should be prepared carefully for each test.
 The card should be clearly typed or printed.
 It should be simple and use unambiguous terms and directions as a guide to the
evaluation.
 A score card with too much detail and clutter may discourage careful judgment and too
brief may fail to obtain some important information.
 A table utilizing the hedonic ratings ranging from unacceptable to very acceptable is
relatively easy to construct.
 No single score card fits all experiments. Instead, the score card needs to be developed
for the specific experiment.
 All score cards should contain the date and name of the judge.

Types of Sensory Tests

Different sensory tests are employed for food evaluation. The tests are grouped into four types-
A. Difference Tests/ Discriminative Tests.
B. Descriptive Tests.
C. Hedonic Rating Tests.
The selection of a particular test method will depend on the defined objective of the test, accuracy
desired and personnel available for conducting the evaluation
A. Difference Tests/ Discriminative Tests
 Discrimination tests are qualitative which determine whether there are sensory
differences between samples.
 Some of the aspects include, but are not limited to, odor, taste, and texture.
 For example, these tests are often used when performing quality control on a new batch
of food to ensure that this batch has no sensory differences from the control.
The sensory lab employs three different types of difference tests-
1. Triangle test: Three samples will be used where two are the same and one is different. The
questionnaire tells the panelists that two of the three samples are identical and ask the panelists to
identify the sample that is different.
 Questionnaire for Triangle Test (Discriminative)
Product:
Name: Date .
Two of these three samples are identical, the third is different. Taste the samples in the order
indicated and identify the sample that is different.
Identify the sample that is different:
Code Check the sample that is different
263
716
948
Comments:
2. Duo-trio test: Three samples are again used in duo-trio test. But this time one is used as a
reference sample and the panelists must identify which of the remaining two coded samples is
different compared to the reference.
Questionnaire for Duo-Trio Test (Discriminative)
Product:
Name: Date:
On your tray you have a control sample marked with (R) and two coded samples. One sample is
identical with R and the other is different.
Identify the sample that is different from R:
Code Check the sample that is different
432
701
Comments:

3. Paired comparison test: In a paired comparison test setup, only two coded samples are used.
The panelist is asked to taste the samples in the certain order and identify the one that fits more
with the characteristic of interest.
Questionnaire for Paired Comparison Test (Discriminative)
Product:
Name: Date:
Evaluate the fruit aroma of these two samples of strawberry jam. Taste the sample on the left first.
Indicate which sample has a stronger fruit aroma by circling the number-
610 579
Comments:
 B. Descriptive Tests:
Descriptive sensory tests are quantitative and they are used to identify the nature of a sensory
difference or the magnitude of the difference. Descriptive analysis can indicate exactly how in the
sensory dimension, the competitor's product is different from yours. Most descriptive methods
can be used to define sensory-instrumental relationships. A descriptive sensory evaluation
provides a detailed profile of a food product’s sensory attributes, as well as a qualitative
measurement of each attribute’s intensity.

C. Hedonic Rating Test

 The hedonic rating test is used to measure the consumer acceptability of food products.
 From one to four samples are served to the panelist at one session. He is asked to rate the
acceptability of the product on a scale, usually of 9 points, ranging from 'like extremely'
to dislike extremely.
 The results are analyzed for preference with data from large untrained panels.
 Semi-trained panels in smaller number are used to screen a number of products for
selecting a few for consumer preference studies.

Scorecard-Hedonic Rating Scale

Product:
Name: Date:
Taste these samples and tick √ how much you like or dislike each one and every characteristic. An
honest expression of your personal feeling will help us.

Appearance Aroma Taste Sweetness Texture/mouthfeel

Like extremely ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Like very much ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Like moderately ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Like slightly ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Neither like nor dislike ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Dislike slightly ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Dislike moderately ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Dislike very much ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Dislike extremely ---- ---- ---- ---- ----

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