Lec-02

GIS-801
Advanced Geographic
Information Systems

Institute of Geographical Information Systems (IGIS)

School of Civil & Environmental Engineering (SCEE)
National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)
Islamabad
 The GIS Data Model: Purpose

allows the geographic features in real world

locations to be digitally represented and
stored in a database so that they can be
abstractly presented in map (analog) form,
and can also be worked with and
manipulated to address some problem
 The Feature Model
Divides a mapped landscape into features, that can be
points, lines, or areas/polygons

Using a GIS involves capturing the spatial distribution

of features by measurements of the world or of maps

Almost all human activity and natural phenomena are

spatially distributed, and so can be studied in GIS

A GIS uses map features to manage data

Features
DATA REPRESENTATION
DATA REPRESENTATION (Vector)
DATA REPRESENTATION (Raster)
COMMON GIS DATA FORMATS
 Administrative Boundaries
Utilities

Zoning
Buildings
Parcels
Hydrography
Streets
Digital Orthophoto

• Data is organized by layers, coverages or themes (synonomous

concepts), with each layer representing a common feature.
• Layers are integrated using explicit location on the earth’s
surface, thus geographic location is the organizing principal.
 THE GIS MODEL: EXAMPLE
Here we have three layers or themes:
--roads,
roads --hydrology (water),
--topography (land elevation)
longitude They can be related because precise geographic
coordinates are recorded for each theme.
Layers are comprised of two data types
hydrology •Spatial data which describes location (where)
•Attribute data specifing what, how much,when
longitude
Layers may be represented in two ways:
•in vector format as points and lines
topography •in raster(or image) format as pixels

longitude All geographic data has 4 properties:

projection, scale, accuracy and resolution
 Spatial and Attribute Data
Spatial data (where)
specifies location
stored in a shape file, geodatabase or similar geographic file
Attribute (descriptive) data (what, how much, when)
specifies characteristics at that location, natural or human-
created
stored in a data base table
GIS systems traditionally maintain spatial and attribute data
separately, then “join” them for display or analysis
for example, in Arcview, the Attributes of … table is used to
link a shapefile (spatial structure) with a data base table
containing attribute information in order to display the attribute
data spatially on a map
Raster Model
area is covered by grid with (usually) equal-sized, square cells
attributes are recorded by assigning each cell a single value
based on the majority feature (attribute) in the cell, such as land
use type.
Image data is a special case of raster data in which the
“attribute” is a reflectance value from the geomagnetic
spectrum
cells in image data often called pixels (picture elements)
Vector Model
The fundamental concept of vector GIS is that all geographic
features in the real work can be represented either as:
points or dots (nodes): trees, poles, fire plugs, airports, cities
lines (arcs): streams, streets, sewers,
areas (polygons): land parcels, cities, counties, forest, rock type
Because representation depends on shape, ArcView refers to files containing
vector data as shapefiles
Concept of
Vector and Raster Real World

Raster Representation Vector Representation

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 R T
1 R T
2 H R
point
3 R line
4 R R
5 R
6 R T T H
7 R T T polygon
8 R
9 R
 Smart Vector—Pavement polygons

Smart Raster—5 feet grids

Images—rasters
 Projection, Scale, Accuracy and Resolution
the key properties of spatial data
Projection: the method by which the curved 3-D surface of the
earth is represented by X,Y coordinates on a 2-D flat map/screen
distortion is inevitable
Scale: the ratio of distance on a map to the equivalent distance
on the ground
in theory GIS is scale independent but in practice there is an implicit range of
scales for data output in any project
Accuracy: how well does the database info match the real world
Positional: how close are features to their real world location?
Consistency: do feature characteristics in database match those in real world
is a road in the database a road in the real world?
Completeness: are all real world instances of features present in the database?
Are all roads included.
Resolution: the size of the smallest feature able to be recognized
for raster data, it is the pixel size

The tighter the specification, the higher the cost.

Examples
 Layers

Vector
Layers

Street Network layer: lines Land Parcels layer: polygons

Raster (image) Layer

Digital Ortho Photograph Layer:
Digital Ortho photo: combines the
visual properties of a photograph
with the positional accuracy of a
map, in computer readable form.
Projection: State Plane, North Central Texas Zone, NAD 83
Resolution: 0.5 meters
0 1500 3000 Feet Accuracy: 1.0 meters
Scale: see scale bar
Overlay based on Common Geographic Location
GIS Software Packages
 Software for GIS: The Main Players
ESRI, Inc., Redlands, CA
clear market leader with about a third of the market
originated commercial GIS with their ArcInfo product in 1981 The main
privately owned by Jack Dangermond, a legend in the field “pure GIS”
Strong in gov., education, utilities and business logistics companies.
MapInfo, Troy N.Y.
Aggressive newcomer in early 1990s, but now well-established.
Strong presence in business, especially site selection & marketing, and telecom
Intergraph (Huntsville, AL)
origins in proprietary CAD hardware/software
Older UNIX-based MGE (Modular GIS Environment) evolved from CAD
Current GeoMedia was the first true MS Windows-based GIS
strong in design, public works, and FM (facilities management), but weakening
Bentley Systems (Exton, PA)
MicroStation GeoGraphics, originally developed with Intergraph, is now their exclusive and
main product..
Strong in engineering; advertises itself as “geoengineering”
Autodesk (San Rafael, CA)
Began as PC-based CAD, but now the dominant CAD supplier
First GIS product AutoCAD Map introduced in 1996
Primarily small business/small city customer base
 Software for GIS: other players
Vector GIS Raster GIS
Smallworld Systems • ERDAS/Imagine
(Englewood, CO) – long established leader
– acquired by Leica Geosystems in 2001
first to use OO (early ‘90s),
but failed to compete as • ER MAPPER
established vendors did – aggressive newcomer originating in Australia
same • Envi,
Purchased by GE in 2000 – relative newcomer, radar specialization
emphasis on FM & utilities – acquired by Kodak in 2000
Manifold • PCI--Geomatica
(CDA International Corp): – long-term Canadian player
low cost, but low market • CARIS
share – newer Canadian entry
Maptitude • GRASS (Rutgers Univ.)
(Caliper Corp, Newton, MA): – Classic old-timer originally developed by US
Army Construction Engineering Research
another low cost one Lab(CERL) in Champaign, IL;
– army ended dev. & support in 1996 but
assumed by Baylor University.
• IDRSI (Clark Univ)
– pioneering, university-developed package