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On the Formation Mechanism of Mud Volcanoes in the South Caspian Basin

According to 2D and 3D Seismic Data

Article in Izvestiya Physics of the Solid Earth · September 2020

DOI: 10.1134/S106935132005002X

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ISSN 1069-3513, Izvestiya, Physics of the Solid Earth, 2020, Vol. 56, No. 5, pp. 721–727. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2020.
Russian Text © The Author(s), 2020, published in Fizika Zemli, 2020, No. 5, pp. 131–138.

On the Formation Mechanism of Mud Volcanoes in the South Caspian

Basin According to 2D and 3D Seismic Data
I. S. Gulieva, *, N. P. Yusubova, **, and Sh. M. Guseynovaa, ***
a
Institute of Oil and Gas, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, Baku, AZ1000 Azerbaijan
*e-mail: [email protected]
**e-mail: [email protected]
***e-mail: [email protected]
Received May 31, 2019; revised February 26, 2020; accepted April 23, 2020

Abstract—Identifying the mechanism and formation time of a mud volcano is one of the most debatable
issues concerning the geological phenomenon of mud volcanism. As of now, the use of 3D seismic data is a
unique technique that allows documenting the main formation stages of mud volcanism and revealing the
connection of this process with the formation of hydrocarbon deposits in the South Caspian Basin (SCB). It
is shown that the formation of mud volcanoes began after the accumulation of the Maikop (Oligocene–
Lower Miocene) series stratum and continued in parallel with the deposition of sediments. As the thickness
of the sedimentary cover increased, mud volcanoes periodically became active. A paragenetic relationship
may perhaps exist between the formation of mud volcanoes and the formation of petroleum hydrocarbons.

Keywords: mud volcanism, South Caspian Basin, oil and gas fields, 2D-, 3D seismic prospecting, Maikop
deposits
DOI: 10.1134/S106935132005002X

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF HYPOTHESES FOR tonic processes. Note that tectonic processes (mainly
THE FORMATION OF MUD VOLCANOES horizontal compression forces) are involved in the for-
Scientists’ opinions on the mechanism of forma- mation and eruption of mud volcanoes but they are
tion of mud volcanoes are focused on three main not dominant, since the roots of mud volcanoes do not
trends (Yakubov, 1971). extend below the bottom of the Maikop deposits
(Yusubov, 2018).
Followers of the first trend (E.P. Shteber, S.A. Kova-
levskii, V.A. Gorin, N.A. Kudryavtsev, P.N. Kropot- The third group of oil geologists (V.N. Weber,
kin, B.M. Valyaev, Sh.F. Mekhtiev, S.D. Gemp, K.P. Kalitskii, V.D. Golubyatnikov, I.M. Gubkin,
Z.A. Buniat-Zadeh, K.K. Wilson and others) cham- A.A. Aliev, F.G. Dadashev and others) link the forma-
pion G.V. Abikh’s ideas about the endogenous genesis tion of mud volcanoes to the excessive pressure of
of mud volcanoes. E. Martonn (1934) and E. Hauge hydrocarbon gases concentrated in the subsurface
(1924) linked not only mud volcanoes but also oil flow which causes the breakthrough of mud breccias to the
with volcanic chambers. K. Gyumbel (1879) refuted surface through eruptive channels (M.K. Kalinko,
this statement arguing that the material of breccia is A.A. Yakubov, M.M. Zeynalov, Z.A. Buniat-Zadeh,
mud masses formed from clay-marl tertiary rocks. R.R. Rakhmanov, E.F. Shnyukov and many others).
There is no unambiguous explanation for the idea of This scientific trend has been recognized by most
the endogenous genesis of mud volcanoes, since the researchers of this problem.
products of the eruption of mud and magma volcanoes According to a number of authors, the inflow of gas
differ greatly in their chemical and lithological com- from great depths along the zones of increased rock
position. permeability mainly associated with tectonic faults
The second group of scientists (N.S. Shatskiy, causes the presence of abnormal high seam pressure
M.M. Zhukov, E.V. Milanovskii, V.E. Ruzhentsev, (AHSP) in the upper horizons of the section. As it is
S. Zuber, V.A. Gorin, S.F. Fyodorov, Z.A. Buniat- described in studies of such scientists as P.P. Avdusin,
Zadeh, V.G. Bondarchuk, A.L. Putkaradze, C.A. Zey- V.A. Gorin, Z.A. Buniat-Zadeh and others, mud vol-
nalov, I.M. Siryka, N.Yu. Khalilov, A.A. Kerimov, canoes are usually located along the tracks of large
A.N. Pilchin, L.N. Yelanskii, M.L. Copp and others) (deep) faults or at their intersections. In this case the
followed A.D. Arkhangelskii and I.M. Gubkin in breakthrough of liquefied clay into the overlying rocks
thinking that mud volcanoes are associated with tec- is often compared to hydraulic fracturing. Note that

721
722 GULIEV et al.

these conclusions are not sufficiently substantiated, strata, the presence of strata waters, the accumulation
since mud volcanoes located on the territory of Azer- of continuously flowing gases, the existence of tec-
baijan do not have any connection with tectonical tonic faults and abnormally high reservoir pressure.
faults especially with their intersections.
R.R. Rakhmanov devoted a number of his studies to
One of the authors assumes that fluidogenic rock the topic of conditions of mud volcanoes formation and
types are formed as a result of discrete-pulse input of their energy (Rakhmanov, 1979; 1987). R.R. Rakhmanov
plastic (tectonic and ascending) and fluidized (lique- calculated the energy of a mud volcano eruption,
fied, fluid) rock masses (injectible according to the which includes the energy E1 spent on lifting the mass
methods of material input) in sedimentary basins of a mud volcano breccia from the hearth to the mouth
(Belenitskaya, 2008; 2011). The author of another of the outlet channel, and consists of the energy lost to
study, notes that a moving substance can have a signif- overcome the forces of gravity (Eg) and friction energy
icant impact on the adjacent rocks or simply fill all the (Efr); kinetic energy in the upper part of the outlet
cavities and defects encountered in its path, creating channel E1 and excess energy released during the Ek par-
specific forms of fluidolites (Filippov, 2016).
oxysm. The value of the eruption energy (≈1014 joule),
The studies of I.S. Guliev and V.V. Ivanov (Ivanov, obtained by the author as a result of calculation, is
1986; 2002) substantiate the provisions of the physical approximately 2–8 times lower than the same of mag-
and chemical hypothesis of the connection of mud matic volcanoes.
volcanoes with phase transitions in hydrocarbon sys-
tems, the excitation and decompression of sedimen- In one of the latest studies based on the interpreta-
tary material, the formation of excessive reservoir tion of seismic survey data, it is noted that the devel-
pressure and the release of decomposed material to the opment of mud volcanoes in the sea began in the
surface. Sabunchi-Surakhan period and reached the highest
Since the middle of the XX century, many activity in the Absheron-Quaternary period (Yusifov,
researchers have also considered the connection of 2004). The authors believe that the cycles of mud vol-
mud volcanoes with the seismicity of the territory. canoes activity in the SCB coincide with the time of
In particular, this information is given in the studies high sedimentation rates, regional tectonic compres-
of G.V. Abikh (1863), N.V. Malinovskii (1938), sion and the main stage of hydrocarbon generation.
F.S. Ahmedbeyli (1975), Z.Z. Sultanova (1969, They also believe that mud volcanoes in the aquatic
1986), A.A. Yakubov, Ad.A. Aliev (1987), A.I. Aliev, part of the basin is associated with high geofluidic
M.M. Rzaev (1984), R.R. Rakhmanov (1987), pressure gradients in the subsurface (diatremes), and
Ad.A. Aliev, A.G. Gasanov, A.Ya. Kabulova (1989), not with diapirism, as it is on land. Moreover, they
Ad.A. Aliev (1992), B.M. Panakhi (1987, 1998) and avouch that mud volcanoes in the sea, unlike on land,
others. In one of the studies it is noted that a signifi- may not always be associated with the Maikop series,
cant correlation between eruptions of mud volcanoes meaning that the roots of volcanoes may be located in
and earthquakes is not observed (Seholi, 2013). younger stratigraphic intervals.
Another group of authors believes that a certain num- The authors of the study, which examines the
ber of mud volcano eruptions occur during periods of mechanism of formation of mud volcanoes, believe
earthquake activation (Aliev, 2014; Ali-Zadeh, 1985). that mud volcanoes are associated with zones of
In order to identify the relationship between mud decompression in the Earth crust, are associated with
and seismic activity we analyzed statistical data from shear deformations and are indicators of fluid
2010 to 2018. During the period under review, dynamic activity of the Earth crust interior (Bagirza-
55 600 earthquakes occurred (every 42 min) of which deh, 1972; Bagirov, 1997a; 1997b).
2516 with magnitudes greater than 2.7 mL. Thus an Based on the interpretation of seismic data,
average of 280 earthquakes occurred annually, but the I.S. Guliev and F.A. Kadirov propose an improved
number of mud volcano eruptions is much smaller, model for the development of mud volcanoes based on
moreover, the exact number is unknown. It should be the Rayleigh–Taylor instability (Guliev, 2000). The
noted that both events occur regularly and the areas of model is based on the results of analytical calculations
distribution of mud volcanoes and earthquakes coin- using a three-layer model that includes a stratum sat-
cide. It is possible that seismic events affect the entire urated with hydrocarbons (a viscous layer). According
distribution area of mud volcanoes, however, mass to the linear stability theory, if the Rayleigh number is
awakening of mud volcanoes has never been observed. greater than the critical one, then convection move-
Therefore, there is no direct connection between mud ments occur in the medium. These movements are
volcanoes and seismicity of territories, and it is practi- one of the main geodynamic processes that lead to
cally impossible to establish such a connection. mud volcanoes, and, accordingly, the migration of
The distribution area of mud volcanoes coincides hydrocarbons from the source medium and incoming
with the largest oil and gas basins and their corre- gas from deeper layers of the Earth crust. Based on the
sponding elision systems (Pavlinova, 2016; Kharakhi- results of this study the authors concluded that the lin-
nov, 2010). Mud volcanoes require powerful plastic ear distribution and change in distances between mud

IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH Vol. 56 No. 5 2020

 ON THE FORMATION MECHANISM OF MUD VOLCANOES 723

volcanoes can be explained by fluctuations in the

power of the convecting layer (Guliev, 2000).
In the current study a different model for the for-
mation of mud volcanoes is proposed. 1 V1 dh1
3 V3 dh3
SOME METHODOLOGICAL FEATURES
OF STUDYING MUD VOLCANOES
USING SEISMIC METHODS
During performance of seismic surveys on land, 2 V2
the points of excitation of elastic waves that fall on the dh2
arch part of a volcanic cone formed from mud-volca-
nic breccia are almost not processed. For this reason
the upper part of the geological section within the area
occupied by the mud volcano crater remains uncov- V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 4 V4 dh4
ered. In this case the unexplored upper part of the sec- dh1 > dh2 > dh3 > dh4
tion resembles a cone with the upside down top. The
geometric parameters of this cone-shaped form
depend on the size of the cross-section area of the Fig. 1. Diagram of a two-dimensional section showing dis-
cone and the height. The most complete information crete phases of mud volcano formation.
about the parameters of a mud volcano can be
obtained based on the geological interpretation of 2D
and 3D seismic survey materials performed in offshore times Eocene and upper Cretaceous outliers, and
zones. The reason for this is the fact that seismic sur- Neogene-Quaternary debris is very rare. In the distri-
veys in offshore zones using common depth point bution areas of mud volcanoes the thickness of depos-
method (CDPM) are able to probe the upper part of its in the Neogene-anthropogenic part of the sedi-
the Earth crust with seismic waves. Therefore, we used mentary complex is repeatedly greater than in the
data from the 2D and 3D seismic survey performed Maikop formation. However clay rocks of the Maikop
with the help of CDPM in the Caspian sea to solve this formation make up the largest percentage of mud vol-
problem. cano emissions, while sandstone and limestone frag-
ments make up only 7–8% (Yakubov, 1971).
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS It is natural that in the breccias of a mud volcano
fragments of rocks can occur which stratigraphically
Based on the results of microfaunistic and petro- are younger than the Oligocene. It is due to the erup-
graphic studies of breccias, it is established that the tive channel of the mud volcano being in constant
roots of most mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan reach the connection with them. The presence of rocks older
bottom of the Upper Cretaceous and in some cases than the Oligocene in the volcanic breccia is explained
even the Jurassic deposits (Yakubov, 1971). In the by the fact that the Maikop deposits were accumulated
breccias of mud volcanoes sometimes there are car- in a rapidly sinking sedimentation basin. Thus, the
bonate rocks associated mainly with upper Cretaceous older rocks were included in the Oligocene as a result
deposits and less often with the stratigraphic interval of moving from the territories adjacent to the Maikop
from the Paleogene to the Neogene. According to basin and are allochthonous.
their material composition they are divided into lime-
stones, marls, dolomites and siderites. Marls are con- Consider the process of formation of a mud vol-
fined to upper Cretaceous, Eocene, Oligocene and cano on the example of a schematic (conceptual)
Miocene deposits. The presence of siderites is noted in model of sedimentation in four phases (Fig. 1). As it is
the emissions of many volcanoes. Their stratigraphic shown in the model, the geostatic pressure on the lower
age corresponds to the deposits of the Oligocene- medium, in this case on the mud mass (marked in gray),
lower Miocene (Maikop formation). Rarely observed increases with the volume of sedimentary rocks carried
fragments of pyroclastic rocks in emissions of mud into the basin. As a result of this process the mud mass,
volcanoes, represented by volcanic tuffs with an ash which has the properties of non-Newtonian liquid, is
structure, are associated with Eocene deposits. squeezed out into the upper half-space and a crater of the
Pieces of sand and siltstone rocks in emissions of volcano is created (the second phase).
mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan are relatively more com- Then phases 3 and 4 are formed. The first phase of
mon than coarse-grained ones. According to their formation is commented on in the following parts of
mineralogical composition, monomictic-quartz, oli- the article. At the same time rock fragments from the
gomictic-feldspar-quartz and polymictic varieties are upper medium do not participate in the composition
distinguished among them. These rocks are found of the squeezed mud mass. The diagram shows that at
mainly in mid-Pliocene, Oligocene-Miocene, some- all stages of the process the volume of the mud mass

IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH Vol. 56 No. 5 2020

724 GULIEV et al.

3 3.44

1 Q1ab

2
N22ak
i le fracture
ns s
Te
3 al li
r ne
t

Ex
4

io
4.99 u
r fractu

ten
ten

e
a
he re

s
Ex

ion
S

s C
n
sio

om
N12B32

res

pr
mp

es s
Co

ion
1 2

5 6.74
Fig. 3. The initial phase of formation of a clay diapir:
(1) clay that has the properties of non-Newtonian liquid,
4 (2) sandstone.
Т, s H, km
medium (Yusubov, 2018; Leader, 1986; Sapfirov,
Fig. 2. Buried mud volcano in the SCB. Correlated seismic 1974). As a result of this dynamic process, called the
waves along the tops of: (1) akchagyl horizon; (2) Sura- Rayleigh–Taylor instability, cracks and discontinuities
khani formation; (3) anhydrite layer and (4) Sabunchi for- are formed in the thickness of sediments lying directly
mation. above the intrusion layer.
The introduction of intrusion into the upper half-
does not change, which leads to a general process of space is also facilitated by the fact that the liquid can-
the sedimentation surface subsidence. In this process not penetrate into the lower half-space due to the dif-
the main role belongs to the process associated with ference in the average general pressure (Pb) exerted by
the Rayleigh–Taylor instability theory. the overlying deposits and gradually decreasing in the
Consider a real time section (Fig. 2) along one of upper direction:
the cross-section lines of a seismic cube, where the Pb = ghσ bw ,
eruptive channel of a buried mud volcano is visible.
The formation scheme of a buried volcano is very well where σ bw —the total density of the wet sediment; h—
consistent with the second phase of the model shown the thickness of the sedimentation mass above the
in Fig. 1. This example clearly shows that the walls of intrusion; g—the gravitational acceleration. The dif-
the eruptive channel of a mud volcano, which is in ference in densities required for the formation of an
constant connection with the environment, are quite intrusion decreases with depth due to compaction of
smooth and do not allow the capture of rocks from it sediments, leading to dehydration and diagenetic
in the process of squeezing out the mud mass raised transformation of the sediment. This process contrib-
from the source layer. A similar explanation is used for utes to the initial stage of mud volcanoes formation.
the presence of rocks older than the Oligocene in the The process described in the previous part of the arti-
mud volcanoes breccias. Therefore, they are alloch- cle continues according to the model shown in Fig. 1
thonous and were included in the clay mass from the (phases 2, 3 and 4).
eroded surface surrounding the sedimentation basin. As it is shown in Fig. 3, the force generated under
the influence of sedimentation load is distributed
evenly over the entire surface relative to the liquid
MECHANISM OF MUD VOLCANOES mass, resulting in extension zone and a system of faults
FORMATION on the convex surface of the formation. These faults
In conditions when light (less dense) liquid is below are the first channels through which the liquefied clay
heavier (denser) one, medium is created, where the mass is squeezed out in the direction of the daylight
lighter liquid is intruded (Figs. 1 and 3) into a denser surface. At the initial stage of a mud volcano forma-

IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH Vol. 56 No. 5 2020

 ON THE FORMATION MECHANISM OF MUD VOLCANOES 725

tion, the near-fault surface is constantly eroded and SW NE

destroyed, resulting in the creation of eruptive chan- Sea level
nels of the mud volcano.
Figure 4 shows the vertical section of the eruptive Q
1 8.72
channel of the Nakhchyvan mud volcano based on
three-dimensional seismic survey data. The time sec-
tion covers the stratigraphic interval from the Jurassic Ab
to the Anthropogene. The dome of the mud volcano is 2 2.06
eroded by underflows, which indicates the completion
of the eruption process (or a reduction in the volume
carried out on the daylight surface of the mud breccia). 3 3.58
It can be observed that the roots of the mud volcano
are located at the level of the erosive surface of Meso-
zoic deposits. It is important to note that the zone 4 5.40
where continuity is broken when correlating the in-

N1–2
phase axes of reflected waves (in this case from the
erosive surface of Mesozoic deposits) is associated 5 6.86
with the distorting influence of the eruptive channel of
a mud volcano on the kinematic and dynamic param-
eters of the seismic wave field.
6 8.59
Consider this conclusion on the basis of seismic (P3 + N11)mk
and geological modeling. Figure 5 shows a geological
model of a two-dimensional geological section with an 7 P1–2 10.30
eruptive channel of a mud volcano in the center. The
theoretical time section is shown below, which was K1–2
constructed using the Finite Difference Modeling Т, s H, km
program from the ProMax software package. In the
time section (Fig. 5b), under the eruptive channel of a Fig. 4. Section of the eruptive channel of the Nakhchyvan
mud volcano, a wave field with distorted kinematic mud volcano according to three-dimensional seismic survey.
and dynamic parameters is observed. A time section
resembling the original geological section was
obtained after application of the migration transfor- Moreover, the phenomenon of Rayleigh–Taylor insta-
mation (Fig. 5c). However, under the mud volcano, bility explains the initial stage of the mud volcano for-
there is a wave front of reflected waves reminding that mation mechanism, and the subsequent stages of its
there is a reflecting horizon here. These are in-phase development are associated with the growth of geo-
axes of a partially multiple reflected wave formed static pressure which increases as the thickness of the
between layers with velocities of 3.7, 2.1 and 3.2 km/s, sedimentary cover increases. The Maikop clays,being
i. e. the layer (the source medium of mud volcanoes) plastic and less dense under the influence of lithostatic
is located between the layers where the velocity of seis- pressure of the denser deposits that overlap them are
mic waves is high compared to it. Note that this phe- embedded in the upper half-space creating intrusions
nomenon is often observed in the practice of seismic (diapirs). This dynamic process, called Rayleigh–
survey in the SCB. Taylor instability, is also facilitated by the fact that
The results of the geological interpretation of the light liquid located below the denser one cannot be
seismic survey data allowed us to determine the age introduced into the lower half-space due to the differ-
and mechanism of mud volcanoes as well as to provide ence in the average general pressure of the deposits,
some clarity on the relationship of this process with which gradually decreases in the upper direction.
the formation of hydrocarbon deposits in the South During introduction in the overlying layers in the
Caspian Basin. Taking into consideration the fact that sediment thickness above the diapir arch, cracks and
currently mud volcanoes occupy the upper layers of discontinuities are formed (Fig. 3), moving along
the Earth crust covering the Oligocene-Quaternary which the clay mass pours out to the surface, creating
deposits, the authors believe that the formation of the eruptive apparatus of a mud volcano. The pro-
mud volcanoes began after the accumulation of posed scheme of mud volcano formation (Fig. 1)
Maikop deposits and continued in parallel with sedi- shows that the formation of a volcano eruptive channel
mentation to the present day. has a stage character: each stage represents a period of
The study of the structure of eruptive channels of activation of mud volcano activity alternating with
mud volcanoes as independent objects has shown that periods of sedimentation.
the main model of their formation is the process asso- We believe that mud-volcanic activity in the SCB
ciated with the Rayleigh–Taylor instability theory. began in the Miocene period, that is after the accumu-

IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH Vol. 56 No. 5 2020

726 GULIEV et al.

(a) cover increased, mud volcanoes periodically became

Х, km active and their eruptive channels grew.
0 5 10 15 Emissions of mud volcanoes are mainly repre-
V = 2.2 km/s sented by clays of the Maikop series, while fragments
1 V = 2.4 km/s of overlying sandstones and limestones reach only 7–
2 V = 2.8 km/s 8% of the total volume (Yakubov, 1971). Obviously,
H, km

V = 3.0 km/s fragments of rocks, which are younger than the Oligo-
3 V = 3.2 km/s cene age, can be observed in mud-volcanic breccia,
V = 2.1 km/s because the eruptive channel contacts them. The pres-
4 ence of rocks older than the Oligocene in the volcanic
V = 3.7 km/s
5 V = 4.0 km/s breccia is due to the removal of terrigenous material
(b) from the territories adjacent to the sedimentation
Х, km basin, i.e. they are allochthons.
0 5 10 15 Figure 4 shows a vertical cross-section of a mud
volcano eruptive channel on a time section covering
1 the stratigraphic interval from the Jurassic to the
Anthropogenic period. The mud volcano dome is
2 eroded by underflows, which indicates the completion
Т, s

of the process of removal of mud-volcanic breccia to

3 the daylight surface . The section shows that the mud
4
volcano roots are located at the level of the erosional
surface of Mesozoic deposits, but such seismic images
5 require correct interpretation. It needs to be noted that
the zones where continuity is broken during correla-
tion of the in-phase axes of reflected waves (in this
(c) case, from the erosive surface of Mesozoic deposits)
Х, km are associated with the distorting influence of the mud
0 5 10 15 volcano eruptive channel on kinematic and dynamic
parameters of the seismic wave field. In fact, in the
1 time section (Fig. 5b) a wave field with distorted kine-
matic and dynamic parameters is observed under the
2 eruptive channel of a mud volcano. This seismic effect
is due to the fact that the reservoir (the source medium
Т, s

3 of mud volcanoes) is located between layers where the

velocity of seismic waves propagation is relatively high.
4 Note that this phenomenon is often observed in the
practice of seismic survey in the SCB. Therefore, it
5 would be wrong to say that the roots of a mud volcano
are located at the level of the surface of Mesozoic
deposits.
Fig. 5. Results of seismogeological modeling: (a) geologi- As shown by seismic survey data, the folds in the
cal model; (b) time section calculated using the Finite Dif- South Caspian basin formed as a result of mud-volca-
ference Modeling (ProMax) program; (c) time section after nic and tectonic processes are separated by flat and
migration transformation. The red arrow shows the front of a wide basins wich have different amplitudes. During
partially multiple reflected wave formed from the top of a
low-speed layer (marked with yellow). the process of development of these basins and folds
conditions were created under which the plastic clay
mass together with the most mobile fluids from under
lation of a certain amount of sedimentation over the the basins were squeezed out in the direction of the
Maikop deposits. It should be noted that in the areas anticline cores and filled the reservoirs, creating oil
of mud volcanoes the thickness of deposits in the Neo- and gas deposits.
gene-Anthropogenic part of the sedimentary complex Thus, it is possible to draw the following conclusions
repeatedly exceeds the thickness of deposits in the out of the results of the researches made:
Maikop series. In the SCB the Pliocene-Quaternary (1) The main processes of mud volcanoes forma-
period is characterized by high sinking rates and ava- tion are phase transitions in sedimentary strata that
lanche sedimentation rates. Consequently, the forma- lead to Rayleigh–Taylor instability.
tion of mud volcanoes is caused by the lithostatic pres- (2) The processes of mud volcanoes and oil and gas
sure of the overlying deposits, together with a number fields formation are paragenetically linked and syn-
of other factors. As the thickness of the sedimentary chronous in time and space.

IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH Vol. 56 No. 5 2020

 ON THE FORMATION MECHANISM OF MUD VOLCANOES 727

(3) The roots of mud volcanoes in the SCB are sit- Filippov, M.M., The problem of the genesis of Paleopro-
uated at the level of the Oligocene sole. Products of terozoic primary-clay injections, extrusions and diapirs,
mud volcanoes eruption are associated with the Tr. Karel. Nauchn. Tsentra RAN, 2016, no. 10, pp. 81–99.
Maikop deposits. Guliev, I.S. and Kadirov, F.A., On one mechanism of intra-
(4) Craters and eruptive channels of mud volcanoes formational hydrocarbon migration, Dokl. Akad. Nauk,
are created against the background of simultaneous 2000, vol. 373, no. 4, pp. 506–509.
accumulation of terrigenous material. The diameter of Ivanov, V.V. and Guliev, I.S., Experience of physical and
eruptive channels of mud volcanoes increases in the chemical modeling of mud volcanism, Byull. Mosk. O-va.
direction of sediment rejuvenation. Ispyt. Prir., Otd. Geol., 1986, vol. 61, no. 1.
Ivanov, V.V. and Guliev, I.S., Massoobmen, uglevodorodoo-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS brazovanie i fazovye perekhody v osadochnykh basseinakh
(Mass Transfer, Hydrocarbon Formation and Phase Transi-
The authors are grateful to S.R. Mamedov, who is the tions in Sedimentary Basins), Baku: Nafta-Press. 2002.
head of geophysical materials processing group at UGG Kharakhinov, V.V., Neftegazovaya geologiya Sakhalinskogo
SOCAR, for his assistance in calculating the theoretical regiona (Petroleum Geology of the Sakhalin Region), Mos-
time section based on the model. cow: Nauchn. mir, 2010.
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