FORMULA LIST

Relations and Functions

(1) Relation: Let A and B be two sets. Then a relation R from set A to set B is a subset of A B .
(2) Types of Relations:
2a. Empty Relation: A relation R on a set A is said to an empty relation iff R = ϕ i.e.

(a, b)  R a, b  A i.e. no element of A will be related to any other element of A with the help of

the relation R.
2b. Universal Relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be a universal relation iff
R = A  A i.e. (a, b)  R, a,b  A i.e. each element of A is related to every other element of A with
the help of the relation R.
(3) A relation R on A is:

3a. Reflexive Relation if ( a , a ) R for all a  A

3b. Symmetric Relation if (

a , b ) R  (b , a )  R all a , b  A

3c. Transitive Relation if (

a , b ) R , (b , c ) R  (a , c ) R all a , b , c  A

(4) A relation R in a set A is said to be an Equivalence Relation if R is reflexive, symmetric and

transitive.
(5) Equivalence Class
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A and let a A . Then, we define the equivalence class of

a as  a  =  b A, b is related to a =b A :(b, a )  R

(6) Function: Let A and B be two non-empty sets. Then a function ‘ f ’ from set A to set B is a
rule which associates elements of set A to elements of set B such that:
(a) All elements of set A are associated to elements in set .
(b) An element of set A is associated to a unique element in set B .
(7) Vertical Line Test: A curve in a plane represents the graph of a real function if and only if no
vertical line intersects it more than once.

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(8) Types of functions:
8a. One-One Function (or Injective Function): A function y = f ( x ) is said to be one –
one iff different pre-images have different images or if images are same
then the pre-images are also same.

i.e. f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 )  x1 = x2 or x1  x2  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )

8b. Many-One Function: A function in which at least two pre-

images have same image is called as many-one function.

8c. Into Function: A Function is said to be an ‘into’ function if there is at least one element
in the co-domain of the function such that it has no pre-image in domain.
8d. Onto Function (or Surjective Function): A function is said to be onto function if each
element of co-domain has a pre-image in its domain. Alternately, A function ‘f’ will be called an
onto function iff Rf = co-domain ( f )

8e. Bijective Function: A function which is one – one and onto both is called as bijective
function.
(9) Horizontal Line Test: f is one-one function if no line parallel to x-axis meets the graph in more
than one point.
(10) Let A be any finite set having n elements. Then,

10a. Number of one-one functions from A to A are n!

10b. Number of onto functions from A to A are n!

10c. Number of bijective functions from A to A are n!

(11) If A and B are finite sets containing m and n elements, then

11a. Total number of relations from the set A to set B is 2mn .

2
11b. Total number of relations on the set A is 2m .

11c. Total number of functions from the set A to set B is nm .

11d. Total number of one-one functions from the set A to set B is nP mif n  m , otherwise 0.

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 n
11e. Total number of onto functions from set A to set B is (−1)
r =1
n−r n
Cr r m if m  n ,

otherwise 0.

11f. Total number of bijective functions from the set A to set B is m! , if m = n , otherwise 0.

(12) COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

If f and g are two functions then their composition

12a. fog is defined iff Rg  Df and fog ( x ) = f ( g ( x))

12b. gof is defined iff Rf  Dg and gof ( x ) = g ( f ( x))

(13) a. If f : A → B and g : B → C then gof : A → C .

b. If f : A → B and g : B → A then fog and gof are both defined, where gof : A → A and
fog : B → B
(14) Identity Function: A function ‘I’ on a set A is said to be an identity function iff I : A → A ,
I ( x) = x .

(15) Equal Functions: A function f will be equal to another function g iff

(i) Df = Dg and (ii) f ( x ) = g ( x)  x  Df (or Dg )

(16) Invertible Functions: A function f : A → B is said to be an invertible function iff there exist

another function g : B → A such that fog = IB and gof = I A . And we write g = f −1

(17) a. A function is invertible iff it is one-one and onto.
b. In the above definition f and g are both inverse of each other i.e. f −1 = g and g −1 = f .

c. ( f −1 ) = f .
−1

d. ( fog ) = g −1of −1
−1

e. fof −1 = f −1of = I

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 Trigonometry and Inverse Trigonometry
(1)1800 = π radians
l
(2) θ = , θ is measured in radians
r
(3) Trigonometric Ratios of Special Angles
3
1 cos 60 =
1 cos 30 =
cos 45 =
2 2
2 1
1 3 sin 30 =
sin 45 = sin 60 = 2
2 2 1
tan 45 = 1 tan 60 = 3 tan 30 =
3
(4) sin (90 −θ ) = cosθ ; cos(90 − θ ) = sinθ
tan (90 −θ ) = cotθ ; cot (900 −θ ) = tanθ
sec(90 − θ ) = cos ecθ ; cosec(90 − θ ) = secθ

(5) cos (−θ ) = cosθ ; sin (−θ ) = −sin θ ; tan (−θ ) = − tan θ

1 1 1 sin θ cosθ
(6) secθ = ; cosecθ = ; cot θ = ; tan θ = ; cot θ =
cosθ sinθ tan θ cosθ sin θ
(7) sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 ; 1+ tan 2 θ = sec2 θ ; 1+ cot2 θ = cos ec2θ

(8) −1  sin x  1 ; −1  cos x  1 ; −   tan x 

(9) sin ( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos Asin B

(10) sin ( A − B ) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
(11) cos( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
(12) cos( A − B ) = cos A cos B + sin Asin B
tan A + tan B
(13) tan ( A + B ) =
1− tan A tan B
tan A − tan B
(14) tan ( A − B) =
1+ tan A tan B
(15) 2 sin A cos B = sin ( A + B ) + sin ( A − B)
(16) 2 cos Asin B = sin ( A + B ) −sin ( A − B)
(17) 2 cos A cos B = cos( A + B ) + cos( A − B )
(18) 2 sin Asin B = cos( A − B ) −cos ( A + B )

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 2 tan A
(19) sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A =
1+ tan2 A
2 2 2 2 1− tan2 A
(20) cos 2 A = cos A − sin A = 2 cos A −1 = 1− 2 sin A =
1+ tan2 A

2 tan A
(21) tan 2 A =
1− tan2 A
1−cos 2 A
(22) sin A = 
2
1+ cos 2A
(23) cos A = 
2
cot Acot B −1
(24) cot ( A + B ) =
cot B + cot A
cot Acot B +1
(25) cot ( A − B ) =
cot B − cot A

(26) sin 3A = 3sin A − 4 sin3 A

(27) cos 3A = 4 cos3 A − 3cos A
3 tan A − tan3 A
(28) tan 3A =
1 − 3 tan2 A
(29) Area of triangle formula:
1 1 1
= ab sin C = bc sin A = ac sin B
2 2 2

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(30) Trigonometric Equation General Solution
(i) sinθ = 0 θ = nπ , nZ
π
(ii) cosθ = 0 θ = (2n +1) , nZ
2
(iii) tanθ = 0 θ = nπ , nZ
sinθ = sin α θ = nπ + (−1) α
n
(iv) , nZ
(v) cosθ = cosα θ = 2nπ  α , nZ
(vi) tanθ = tan α θ = nπ + α , nZ
sin2 θ = sin2 α 
2 
(vii) cos2 θ = cos α  θ = nπ  α , nZ
tan2 θ = tan2 α 

(31) sin nπ = 0 cos nπ = (−1) tan nπ = 0

n
; ;

Inverse Trigonometry
(1) Inverse Function Domain Range
sin−1 −1 , 1 − π , π 
 2 2 
cos−1 −1 , 1 0 ,π 
tan−1 R −π , π 
 2 2
 
 π π
cos ec−1 R −(−1 , 1) − , − 0
 2 2 

0 ,π  − 
π
sec−1 R − ( −1 , 1) 
2 
cot−1 R (0 , π )
(2) sin−1 (− x) = −sin−1 ( x) for all x  −1 , 1
(3) cos−1 (− x) = π −cos−1 ( x) for all x  −1 , 1
(4) tan−1 (−x ) = − tan−1 ( x) for all x  R
(5) cos ec−1 (−x) = − cos ec−1 ( x) for all x 1
(6) sec−1 ( −x ) = π −sec−1 ( x) for all x 1
(7) cot−1 ( −x ) = π − cot−1 ( x) for all x  R

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 1
(8) sin−1 = cos ec−1 ( x) ; for all x 1
x
 

1
(9) cos−1 = sec−1 ( x) ; for all x 1

x
 1
   cot−1 ( x) , for x  0
(10) tan−1   = 
 x  −π + cot−1 ( x) , for x  0
π
(11) sin−1 x + cos−1 x = ;for all x −1 , 1
2
π
(12) tan−1 x + cot−1 x = ; for all x  R
2
π
(13) sec−1 x + cosec−1 x = ;for all x 1
2

( 2
) ; if either x + y 1 or xy  0 , x 1, y 1
(14) sin−1 x + sin−1 y = sin−1 x 1 − y + y 1 − x2
2 2

(15) sin x − sin y = sin (x 1 − y − y 1 − x ) ; if either x + y 1 or xy  0, x 1, y 1

−1 −1 −1 2 2 2 2

(16) cos x + cos y = cos ( xy − 1 − x 1 − y ); if x + y  0 , x 1, y 1

−1 −1 −1 2 2

(17) cos x − cos y = cos ( xy + 1 − x 1 − y ); if x  y , x 1, y 1

−1 −1 −1 2 2

(18) 2sin x = sin (2x 1 − x ) ; if −

1 1
−1 −1 x
2
2 2
(
(19) 2 cos−1 x = cos−1 2x2 − 1 ) ; if 0  x  1

 x+ y , if xy  1
tan−1  1 − xy 
  
−1 −1  −1  x + y 
(20) tan x + tan y =  π + tan   , if x  0, y  0 and xy  1
  1 − xy 
−1  x + y 
−π + tan , if x  0 , y  0 and xy  1
 
  1 − xy 
 x− y , if xy  −1
tan−1  1 + xy 
  
−1 −1  −1  x − y 
(21) tan x − tan y =  π + tan   , if x  0 , y  0 and xy  −1
  1 + xy 

−π + tan −1  x − y  , if x  0 , y  0 and xy  −1
 
  1 + xy 

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 1 1
(22) 3sin−1 x = sin−1 (3x − 4x3 ) ; if − x 
2 2
1
(23) 3cos−1 x = cos−1 (4x3 − 3x) ; if  x 1
2
−1  3x − x
 3
1 1
(24) 3 tan−1 x = tan  2  ; if − x
 1− 3x  3 3
 −1  2x  , −1 x  1
sin 1 + x2
  
 −1  1 − x  2
(25) 2 tan−1 x = cos  2  , 0  x 
  1+ x 
−1  2x 
 tan , −1 x 1
 2 
 1 − x 
 xy −1 
(26) cot−1 x + cot−1 y = cot−1
 
 y+x 
 xy +1 
(27) cot−1 x − cot−1 y = cot−1  
y−x
 
(28) Some useful substitutions
Expression Substitution
a2 + x2 x = a tanθ or a cotθ
1 + x2 x = tanθ or cotθ
a −x2 2
x = a sinθ or a cosθ
1− x 2
x = sinθ or cosθ
x2 − a2 x = a secθ or a cosecθ
x2 − 1 x = secθ or cosecθ
a−x a+x 

; 
a+x a−x 
 x = a cos 2θ
a−x a+x 
;
a+x a−x 

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 Ch 3 Matrices

(1) A matrix in which number of rows is equal to number of columns, say n is known as square
matrix of order n .
(2) Properties of Transpose of a Matrix:

( AT ) (ii) ( A + B ) = AT + BT
T T
(i) =A

(iii) (kA) = kAT (iv) ( AB) = BT AT

T T

(v) ( ABC ) = CT BT AT
T

(3) A square matrix A = a  is called a symmetric matrix, if a = a for all i , j  AT = A .

 ij  ij ji

(4) A square matrix A = aij  is called a skew-symmetric matrix, if

a = − a for all i , j  AT = − A
ij ji

(5) All main diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are zero.

(6) Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric
matrix.

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 Determinants
(1) A square matrix A is a singular matrix if A = 0

(2) For any square matrix A, the |A| satisfy following properties.
2a. |AB| = |A| B|
2b. If we interchange any two rows (or columns), then sign of determinant changes.
2c. If any two rows or any two columns are identical or proportional, then value of
determinant is zero.
2d. If we multiply each element of a row or a column of a determinant by constant k, then
value of determinant is multiplied by k.
2e. Multiplying a determinant by k means multiply elements of only one row (or one
column) by k.
2f. If elements of a row or a column in a determinant can be expressed as sum of two or
more elements, then the given determinant can be expressed as sum of two or more
determinants.
2g. If to each element of a row or a column of a determinant the equimultiples of
corresponding elements of other rows or columns are added, then value of determinant
remains same.
(3) Let A = aij  be a square matrix. The Minor Mij of an element aij of A is the determinant of

the matrix obtained by deleting ith row and jth column of A . Minor of an element of a square

matrix of order n ( n  2 ) is a determinant of order ( n −1) .

(4) The Cofactor A of an element a of a square matrix A = a  is defined as A = (−1)
i+ j
M .
ij ij  ij  ij ij

(5) A =Sum of product of elements (of any row or column) with their corresponding cofactors.

(6) If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any other row (or column),

then their sum is zero.

(7) Adjoint of a matrix A is the transpose of a cofactor matrix.

(8) If A and B are square matrices of the same order n , then:

(a) A (adj A) = A In = (adj A) A (b) adj ( AB) = (adj B)(adj A)

(c) adj ( A) = (adj A)

n −1
(d) adj A = A
T T

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 (n −1)2
(e) adj (adj A) = A n−2
A (f) adj (adj A) = A

(g) adj (kA) = k n−1 (adjA), k R (h) (adjA) = adjA−1

−1

(9) A square matrix A of order n is invertible if there exists a square matrix B of the same order
such that AB = In = BA . We write, A−1 = B .
(10) Properties of inverse of a matrix:
(a) Every invertible matrix possesses a unique inverse.

( b ) ( A−1 )
−1 1
(c) ( AB) = B−1 A−1
−1
=A (d) A−1 =
A

( e ) ( AT ) ( )
−1 1
adj ( A)
T
= A−1 (f) A−1 =
A

(11) Let A( x1, y1 ), B ( x2 , y2 )and C ( x3, y3 ) be any three points in XY-plane. Then, area of triangle

x1 y1 1
1
ABC is given by  = x2 y2 1 .
2
x3 y3 1

(12) A system AX = B of n linear equations has a unique solution given by X = A−1 B , if

A  0.

(13) If A = 0 and (adjA) B = 0 , then the system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions.

But if A = 0 and (adjA) B  0 , then the system is inconsistent.

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 Continuity and Differentiability
(1) Limits

xn − an tan x
lim = na n −1 ; lim
sin x
=1 ; lim =1
x→ a x−a x→0 x
x→ 0 x

ex − 1 ax − 1 log(1+ x)
lim =1 ; lim = loge a ; lim =1
x→ 0 x x→ 0 x x→ 0 x
(2) A function f (x) is continuous at x = a if lim f ( x) = f (a) i.e. lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (a) .
x →a x→a− x→a+

(3) Following functions are continuous everywhere:

(a) Constant function (b) Identity function (c) Polynomial function
(d) Modulus function (e) Exponential function (f) Sine & Cosine functions
(4) Following functions are continuous in their domains:
(a) Logarithmic function (b) Rational function
(c) Tan, Cot, Sec & Cosec functions (d) all inverse trigonometric functions
1
(5) If f is continuous function then f and are continuous in their domains.
f
f (x) − f (a)
(6) A function f (x) is differentiable at x = a if lim exists finitely i.e.
x→a x−a

f (a + h) − f (a) f (a − h) − f (a)
lim = lim .
h→0 h h→0 −h
(7) Every differentiable function is continuous but, converse is not true.
(8) Following functions are differentiable everywhere/their defined domain:
(a) Polynomial function (b) exponential function (c) constant function
(d) Logarithmic function (e) trigonometric & inverse trigonometric functions
(9) The sum, difference, product, quotient and composition of two differentiable functions is
differentiable.
(10) Some Standard Derivatives:

( )
(i) d x n = n xn −1 (ii)
d
(log x) =
e
1
(iii)
d
(e ) = e
x x

dx dx x dx
(iv)
d
( )a x = a x log a
e
(v)
d
(sin x) = cos x (vii)
d
(cos x ) = − sin x
dx dx dx
d d d
(viii) (tan x) = sec2 x (ix) (cot x ) = −cos ec 2
x (x) (sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx dx dx
d
(xi) (cos ecx) = −cos ecx cot x
dx

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(xii)
d
(sin x) =
−1 1
(xiii)
d
(cos x) = −
−1 1
( xiv)
d
(tan x) =
−1 1
dx dx dx 1 + x2
(xv)
d
(cot x) = −
−1 1
(xvi)
d
(sec x) =
−1 1
(xvii)
d
(cosec x) = −
−1 1
dx 1 + x2 dx x dx x

(11) Chain rule:

If z = f ( y ) and y = g ( x ) , then dz = dz . dy
dx dy dx

(12) Product Rule

y = uv then dy = du v + u dv
dx dx dx

(13) Quotient Rule

du
u dy v − u dv


If y = then = dx dx
v dx v2
(14) For a function in the parametric form, say y = f (t ) , x = g (t ) we have:

 dy 
 
=  dt  and d y = d  dy 
dy 2

dx  dx 


dx2 dt  dx 
 
 dt 
(15) Rolle’s Theorem:

Let f be a real valued function defined on a , bsuch that:

(a) continuous on a , b (b) differentiable on ( a , b) (c) f ( a ) = f (b)

then, there exist a real number c(a , b) such that f ' ( c ) = 0 .

(16) Mean Value Theorem:

Let f be a real valued function defined on a , bsuch that:

(a) continuous on a , b (b) differentiable on ( a , b)

f (b) − f ( a)
then, there exist a real number c(a , b) such that f ' ( c ) = .
b−a

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 Ch 6 Applications of Derivatives

(1) Tangents and Normals

 dy 
If y = f ( x) , then   is slope of tangent to y = f ( x) at a point P .
 dx P
1
If y = f ( x) , then − is slope of normal to y = f ( x) at a point P .
 dy 
 
 dx P
dy dx
(2) If tangent is parallel to x-axis, then =0 ; If tangent is parallel to y-axis, then =0
dx dy

(3) If P ( x1 , y1 ) is a point on the curve y = f ( x) , then:

 dy 
Equation of tangent at P is y − y1 =   ( x − x1 )
 dx P
1
Equation of normal at P is y − y1 = − ( x − x1 )
 dy 
 
 dx P
(4) The angle between the tangents to two given curves at their point of intersection is defined as the
angle of intersection of two curves.

(5) Approximations:
Let y = f (x), x be a small increment in x and y be the increment in y corresponding to the
dy
increment in x, i.e.,  y = f (x +  x) – f (x). Then y = x
dx
Also, f ( x + x) = f ( x ) + f ' ( x) x

Increasing and Decreasing Function

(6) A function f is said to be:

6a. Increasing on ( a , b) if x1  x2 in (a , b)  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) for all x1 , x2  ( a , b) .

Alternatively, f ' ( x )  0 for each x in (a , b)

6b. Decreasing on (a , b) if x1  x2 in (a , b)  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) for all x1 , x2  ( a , b) .

Alternatively, f ' ( x )  0 for each x in (a , b)

6c. Strictly increasing on (a , b) if x1  x2 in (a , b)  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) for all x1 , x2  ( a , b) .

Alternatively, f ' ( x)  0 for each x in (a , b) .

6d. Strictly decreasing on (a , b) if x1  x2 in ( a , b)  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) for all x1 , x2  (a , b) .

Alternatively, f ' ( x )  0 for each x in (a , b)

Satyam Sen | PGT Maths | [email protected] Page 14
(7) A function f is monotonic on (a , b) if it is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing on (a , b) .

(8) A point c in the domain of a function f at which f ' (c ) = 0 or f is not differentiable is

either called a critical point.

Maxima and Minima
(9) First Derivative Test
Given a curve y = f(x),
(a) For the stationary point at x = a,
dy
(i) if changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through a, the point S is a
dx
minimum point,
dy
(ii) if changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through a, the point S is a
dx
maximum point,
dy
(iii) if does not change sign as x increase through a, the point S is a point of inflexion.
dx
(b) A stationary point is called a turning point if it is either a maximum point or a minimum point.
(10) Second Derivative Test
Given a curve y = f(x),
dy 2
(a) = 0 and d y  0 at x = a  S(a, f(a)) is a turning point.
dx dx 2
d2y d2y
(i) If > 0, then S is a minimum point. (ii) If < 0, then S is a maximum point.
dx 2 dx 2
dy d2y
(b) = 0 and 2 = 0 at x = a, go back to First Derivative Test.
dx dx
(11) Working rule for finding absolute maxima and/or absolute minima:
Step1: Find all critical points of f in the given interval.
Step 2: Take end points of the interval.
Step 3: At all these points (listed in step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f .

Step 4: Identify the maximum and minimum values of f out of values calculated in step 3.

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 Integrals
(1) Standard Formulas
xn +1
x
n
(i) dx = + c ; n  −1
n +1
1
(ii)  dx = log e x + c
x
ax
(iii)  a dx =
x
+c
log e a
1 1
(iv)  2 dx = − + c
x x
1
(v)  dx = 2 x + c
x
2 32
(vi)  x dx = x + c
3

(vii) sin x dx = − cos x + c

(viii) cos x dx = sin x + c

(ix) sec2 x dx = tan x + c

(x) cos ec2 x dx = − cot x + c

(x) sec x tan x dx =sec x + c

(xi)  cos ecx cot x dx = − cos ecx + c

(xii)  tan x dx = log sec x + c

(xiii)  cot x dx = log sin x + c
π x 
(xiv) sec x dx = log sec x + tan x + c = log tan  +  + c
 4 2
x
(xv)  cos ecx dx = log cosec x −cot x + c = log tan + c
2

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 log x − a + c
1 1
(xvi)  dx =
x −a
2 2
2a x+a

log a + x + c
1 1
(xvii)  2 2 dx =
a −1x 2a a −x x
1  
(xviii) dx = tan−1 +c
 x2 + a2 a
 
a 
1
(xix)  dx = log x + x2 − a2 + c
x −a
2 2

1 x
(xx)  dx = sin−1 +c
a
a2 − x2  
1
(xxi)  dx = log x + x2 + a2 + c
x +a
2 2

x 2 2 a2
(xxii)  x − a dx =
2 2 x − a − log x + x2 − a2 + c
2 2
x 2 2 a2 −1  x 
(xxiii)  a2 − x2 dx = a − x + sin   + c
2 2 a
x 2 2 a2
x +a +
(xxiv)  x2 + a2 dx = 2 2 log x + x + a + c
2 2

(2) By Parts (ILATE Rule):

 du 
If u and v are two functions of x , then uv dx = u vdx − vdx dx
    dx  
 
i.e. (first function) x (integral of second function) – integral of {(derivative of first function) x
(integral of second function)}
We can choose the first function as the function which comes first in the word ILATE, where
I stands for inverse trigonometric functions, L for logarithmic functions, A for algebraic
functions, T for trigonometric functions and E for exponential function.
dx = ex f ( x ) + c
  f ( x) + f ( x ) e
' x
(3)

(4) Integration by Partial fraction of Rational Function of the form P ( x ) :

Q (x)

If degree of P ( x)  degree of Q ( x) , then divide P ( x) by Q ( x)

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 Form Partial Fraction
(i) px + q A B
+
( x − a )( x − b) ( x − a ) ( x − b)
(ii) px + q A
+
B
( x − a) ( x − a) ( x − a )2
2

px2 + qx + r A B C
(iii) + +
( x − a )( x − b )( x − c) ( x − a) ( x − b ) ( x − c)
px2 + qx + r A B C
(iv) + +
( x − a) ( x − b )
2
( x − a ) ( x − a)2 ( x − b )
px2 + qx + r A Bx + C 2
(v) + here, x + bx + c can't befactorised.
( x − a)(x 2
+ bx + c) (x −a) x + bx + c
2

dx dx
(5) For Integrals of the form  ax2 + bx + c or  ax + bx + c
2
use completing the square

method and then applying formulas xvi to xxi .

(6) For Integrals of the form
px + q dx or px + q dx or ( px + q ) dx , write
 ax2 + bx + c   ax2 + bx + c
ax2 + bx + c
d
px + q = A
dx
(ax2 + bx + c) + B where A and B are determined by comparing coefficients on

both sides.
(7) For Integrals of the form
1 1 1
 a + b sin2 x dx or  a + b cos2 x dx or  a sin2 x + b cos2 x dx or
1 1 1
 (a sin x + b cos x) 2
dx or  a + b sin 2x dx or
 a + b cos 2x dx
Algorithm:
Step 1: Divide numerator and denominator by cos2 x
Step 2: Replace sec2 x , if any, in denominator by 1+ tan2 x
1
Step 3: Put tan x = t so that sec2 x dx = dt . This will reduce the integral in form  at 2
+ bt + c
dx

Step 4: Evaluate the integral now using completing the square method.

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 1 1 1
(8) For Integrals of the form  dx or  dx or  dx
a + b sin x a + b cos x a sin x + b cos x
Algorithm:
2 tan x 2 1− tan2 x 2
Put sin x = , cos x =
1+ tan2 x 2 1+ tan2 x 2
a sin x + b cos x
(9) For Integrals of the form
 c sin x + d cos x dx .
Algorithm:
Put Numerator = A (Denominator) + B (Derivative of Denominator)

(10) For Integrals of the form

x2 1 1 1
 x4 + λx2 +1 dx or  x4 + λx2 +1 dx or  tan x dx or  cot x dx or 
sin4 x + cos4 x
dx

Algorithm:
Step1: Divide numerator and denominator by x2 .
2
 1
Step2: Express the denominator in the form  x +   k 2
 x
 1  1
Step3: Introduce d x + or d x − in the numerator.
 x  x
   
1 1
Step4: Substitute x + = t or x − = t as the case may be.
x x
sin x  cos x
(11) For Integrals of the form
 presenceof sin 2x dx , Put Derivativeof Numerator = t
1
(12) For Integrals of the form  dx Put cx + d = t 2
(ax + b) cx + d

1
(13) For Integrals of the form  dx Put px + q = t 2
(ax 2
+ bx + c) px + q
1 1
(14) For Integrals of the form  dx Put ax + b =
(ax + b) px2 + qx + r t

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(15) For Integrals of the form
1 1 −tdt
 dx Put x = toobtain  and then put c + dt2 = u2
(ax2 + b) cx2 + d t (a + bt 2 ) c + dt2

(16) First fundamental theorem of integral calculus:

x

Let the area function be defined by A( x ) = for all x  a where the function f is
 f ( x )dx
a

assumed to be continuous on a , b  . Then A ' ( x ) = f ( x ) for all xa , b

(17) Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus:

Let f be a continuous function of x defined on the closed interval [a, b] and let F be another function
b
d
F ( x ) = f x for all x in the domain of f , then
such that
dx
( )  f ( x) dx = F (b ) − F (a ) .
a

(18) Properties of Definite Integral

b b

(i)  f ( x) dx =  f (t ) dt
a a
b a

(ii)  f ( x) dx = −  f ( x) dx
a b
b c b

(iii)
a
 f ( x) dx =  f ( x) dx +  f ( x ) dx
a c
where a  c  b
b b

(iv)  f ( x) dx =  f (a + b − x ) dx
a a
a a

(v)  f ( x) dx =  f (a − x) dx
0 0

2 a f ( x) dx if f ( −x ) = f ( x) i.e. f is even function

a

(vi)  f ( x) dx =  0

if f ( −x ) = − f ( x) i.e. f is odd function
−a
 0
2 a f ( x) dx if f (2a − x ) = f ( x)
2a

(vii)  f ( x) dx =

0
0
 0 if f (2a − x ) = − f ( x)

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(19) Limit as a Sum
b

 f ( x) dx = lim h  f (a ) + f (a + h ) + f (a + 2h ) + ... + f (a + (n −1) h

a
h →0
where nh = b − a

n ( n −1)
(20) 1+ 2 + 3+... + (n −1) =
2
n (n −1)(2n −1)
(21) 12 + 22 + 32 +...+ (n −1) =
2

6
ex −1 = 1 = lim x
(22) lim
x →0 e −1
x →0 x
x
 rn −1 
(23) a + ar + ar +... ar = a  r −1 
2 n −1

 

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 Application of Integration
Area between a Curve and an Axis
In general, if A(x) is an area function under the curve y = f(x), then area under the curve y = f(x)
b

where f(x)  0 for a  x  b.

from x = a to x = b is given by A =
 f ( x ) dx
a

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 Differential Equations
(1) Order of a differential equation: is the order of the highest order derivative appearing in the
equation.
(2) Degree of a differential equation: is the degree of the highest order derivative, when
differential coefficients are made free from radicals and fractions.
(3) Solution of a differential equation:
3a. Variable separable form:
An equation whose variables are separable can be put into the form
f1 ( x ) dx + f2 ( y ) dy = 0 . Integrating, the general solution is given by

 f1 ( x) dx +  f2 ( y ) dy = C , where C is an arbitrary constant.

3b. Homogeneous differential equation:
dy f (x , y)
A differential equation of the form = where f ( x , y ) and g ( x , y ) are both
dx g (x , y)

homogeneous function of the same degree in x and y i.e. an equation of the form

= F   .
dy y
dx x
dy dv
To solve, put y = vx , then =v+x and on substituting these values in the given
dx dx
equation it will be reducible to variable separable.
dx x
Another form: =G , can be solved by substitution x = vy
y
dy  
3c. Linear Differential Equation:
dy
Equation of the form + P. y = Q where both P and Q are functions of x only.
dx

e and the solution is given by

Pdx
To solve, find Integrating Factor (I.F.) =

y.(I.F.) =  Q .(I.F.) dx + c .
dx
Another Form: Equation of form + P. x = Q where both P and Q are functions of y only.
dy

e and
Pdx
To solve, find Integrating Factor (I.F.) = the solution is given by

x.(I .F.) =  Q .(I.F.) dy + c .

Satyam Sen | PGT Maths | [email protected] Page 23

 Vectors
–––→ →
(1) Position vector of a point P ( x , y , z ) is given by OP = r = x ‸i + y ‸j + zkˆand its magnitude is

given by x2 + y2 + z2 .
→ →
(2) If = a iˆ + a ˆj + a kˆ , then a , a and a are direction ratios of .
a 1 2 3 1 2 3 a

(3) Triangle law of vector addition: AB + BC = AC

→
(4) The vector sum of the three sides of a triangle taken in order is 0 .
→
(5) If r = a ‸i + b ‸j + c kˆ , then a,b ,c are proportional to its direction ratios and its direction cosine
a b c
are l , m , n given by  , , . Here
a +b +c
2 2 2
a +b +c
2 2 2
a + b2 + c2
2

l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1
→
(6) Two vectors → are collinear if and only if there exists a nonzero scalar λ such that
a and b
→ →
b = λ a→. →
(7) If ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
a = a1i + a 2 j + a 3 k and b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k then the two vectors are collinear if and only
a1 a2 a3
if : = =
b1 b2 b3
(8) The vector sum of two co- initial vectors is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram whose
adjacent sides are the given vectors.
→
→
(9) For a given vector a , the vector aˆ = → gives the unit vector in the direction of →
a
a.
a

(10) If P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) are any two points, then the vector joining P and Q is

given by PQ = ( x2 − x1 )iˆ+ ( y2 − y1 ) ˆj + ( z2 − z1 ) kˆ

(11) Section Formula: The position vector → of a point R dividing a line segment joining the
points P and Q whose position vectors are → respectively, in the ratio m :n
a and b
→ →
(i) Internally, is given by mb + na (ii) externally, is given by mb − na
m+n m−n
→
(12) The Scalar (dot) Product of two given vectors → having angle θ between them is
a and b
→ → → →
a .b = a b cosθ

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 → → →
= a iˆ + a ˆj + ˆ = b iˆ + b ˆj + b kˆ , then: →
(13) If = ab + a b + a b .
a 1 2 a3 k and b 1 2 3 a .b 1 1 2 2 3 3

→ → →2
(14) a . a = a
→ →
→ → a .b →
→ a .b
(15) Projection of vector a on b = → and Projection of vector b on a = → .
b a

→ → → →
(16) If a ⊥ b , then a .b = 0

(17) For mutually perpendicular unit vectors iˆ , ˆj and kˆ , we have:

→ ˆ ˆ = 1and iˆ. jˆ = ˆj.kˆ = k.i
iˆ.iˆ = j . ˆj = k.k ˆˆ=0
→
(18) The Vector (cross) Product of two given vectors → having angle θ between them is
a and b → →
→ → → → θ nˆ , where nˆ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing .
a b = a b sin a and b
→ → →
→ → → → i j k
(19) If a = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ and b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ , then: a  b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
→ → → →
(20) If a || b , then a  b = 0

(21) For mutually perpendicular unit vectors iˆ , ˆj and kˆ , we have:

→
iˆiˆ = j  ˆj = kˆ kˆ = 0 and iˆ→jˆ = kˆ , ˆj  kˆ = iˆ, kˆiˆ = ˆj
(22) Area of a triangle: If → represent the adjacent sides of a triangle then its area is
a and b
→
1 →
given as a b .
2
ABC = 1 –––→ –––→ 1 –––→ –––→ 1 –––→ –––→
Also, Area of AB  AC = BC  BA = CB  CA
→ →→ 2 2 2
(23) If are p.v. of the vertices A, B ,C of ABC , then Area of
a ,b, c
ABC = 1 → → → → → →
a b + b c + c  a
2 → → → →
(24) Area of a parallelogram having two adjacent sides as = 
a and b a b
→ →
→
a b
(25) Unit vectors perpendicular to the plane of a and b are  .
a b
→ → →→ → → → →
(26) a .b = b.a and a  b = − b  a ( )
Satyam Sen | PGT Maths | [email protected] Page 25
 → → → →2 → → 2 →2 →2
(27) For any two vectors a and b , we have a  b + a .b = a b . ( )
 
→ → → →2 → →2 →2 →2
(28) For any two vectors a and b , we have a + b + a − b = 2 a + b

→ Triple Product
(29) Scalar → → →
Let → →
( )
a ,b, c be three vectors. Then the scalar a  b .c is known as scalar triple product and is
→
denoted by  → →
 a b c  .
→ → →
(30) Geometrically,   represents the volume of the parallelepiped whose coterminous
→ →
a b c
→
edges are .
a , b and c

→ →of Scalar
(31) Properties → → Triple → →
→Product:
(a) → →

( ) ( )
a b .c = b  c .a = (c  a ).b
→ → → →
→ → → → → → →
(b) 
   →  
a→ →b →c  =→ −→b → a c  = − c b a  = − a c b 
(c)
( ) (
a b→ .c = a . b  c
→ →
) → → → →
(d)   = 0 , if → → → → → i.e. are coplanar.
= = =
 a b c  a b or b c or c a a ,b, c
(e) λ → → → →
→ →

→ → →  → →
a b c = λ a b c
(f) → →
( ) ( )
a  b + c = a b + ( a  c )
→ → →
(g) If ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k , b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k and c = c1i + c2 j + c3k , then:

→ → → a1 a2 a3
 
 a b c  = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
–––→ –––→ –––→
(h) Four points A, B ,C and D are coplanar if  AB AC AD  = 0

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 Three Dimensional Geometry
LINE
(1) Equation of a line through a given point and parallel to given vector

→
Vector Form: Equation of a line passing through point with position vector aand parallel to the
→ → → → →
vector b is given by: r = a + λb , where r is position vector of any point on the line.

Cartesian Form: Cartesian equation of a line passing through the point ( x1, y1, z1 ) and parallel to

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
the line having D-ratios (a, b, c) is given by: = =
a b c
(2) Equation of a line passing through two points
→ →
Vector Form: Equation of a line passing through two points with position vector a and b is
→ → → →
( )
given by r = a + λ b − a , λ  R

Cartesian Form: Cartesian equation of a line passing through the points with ( x1, y1, z1 ) and

( x , y , z ) is given by: x − x1
=
y − y1
=
z − z1
2 2 2 x −x y −y z −z
2 1 2 1 2 1

(3) Angle between two lines: Angle between the lines with d.r.’s (a1, b1, c1 ) and (a2 , b2 , c2 ) is

a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2

given by: cosθ =
a 2 +b2 +c 2 a 2 +b 2 +c 2

(4) Two lines with d.r.’s (a1, b1, c1 ) and (a2 , b2 , c2 )

4a. will be perpendicular to each other iff a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0

a1 b1 c1
4b. will be parallel to each other iff = =
a2 b2 c2

(5) Angle between the two lines with direction cosines (l1, m1, n1 ) and (l2 , m2 , n2 ) is given by

cosθ = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2

Satyam Sen | PGT Maths | [email protected] Page 27

(6) Skew Lines: Two lines in the space which are neither parallel and nor intersecting.

(7) If two lines are coplanar then they are either parallel or intersecting. Also, two lines are

neither parallel nor intersecting iff they are non-coplanar.

(8) Shortest Distance (SD) between two lines:

→ → → → → →
Vector Form: If r = a1 + λb1 and r = a2 + λb2 are the vector equations of two lines then the

shortest distance between them is the length of the line of the line segment perpendicular to both

of them, it is denoted by ‘ d ’.

(→b  b→ ).(→a − a→ )
1 2 2 1
d= → →
b1  b2

x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
Cartesian Form: If x − x1 = y − y1 = z − z1 and = = are the equations of two
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
skew lines then the shortest distance between them ‘ d ’ is given by:
x2 − x1 y − y z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
d=
2 2 2
a1b2 − a 2b1 + b1c2 − b2c1 + c1a2 − c2a1
→ → → → → →
(9) Two skew lines r = a1 + λb1 and r = a2→+ λb→2 will be intersecting each other iff the shortest
distance between them is zero iff (b  ) ( − ) = 0 iff the lines are coplanar.
1 b2 . a2 a1

(10) Two skew lines x − x1 = y − y1 = z − z1 and x − x2 = y − y2 = z − z2 will be intersecting

a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2

x2 − x1 y− y z2 − z1
each other iff a1 b1 c1 = 0 .
a2 b2 c2
→ → →
(11) Distance between two parallel lines: Distance between two parallel lines r = a1 + λb and
→ → →
r = a2 + λb and is given by:

b  a2 − a1
d=
b

Satyam Sen | PGT Maths | [email protected] Page 28

PLANE
(12) Normal form of the Plane:

Vector Form: Equation of a plane having unit vector normal to the plane nˆ and at a distance of
→
‘d’ from the origin is r.nˆ = d , where,
→
r =Position vector of any point on the plane, nˆ = Unit vector normal to the plane
d = Distance of plane from the origin to the plane
Cartesian Form: Equation of the plane with (l, m, n) as d-cosine of the normal to the plane is

lx + my + nz = d
Where, d = Distance of plane from the origin to the plane.
(13) General form of the equation of the plane:
→ →→
Vector Form: Equation of plane having normal vector to it as nis given by r.n = p

Note: 1. Here ‘ p ’ is not the distance from the origin to the plane
→→
2. In order to convert the equation r.n = p to unit vector normal form we divide the
→ → n→ p
equation by n i.e. the unit vector normal form becomes r. =
→ →
n n
p
and then , d = Distance of plane from the origin to the plane = →
n

Cartesian Form: Equation of plane with d.r.’s of normal vector to it as (a, b, c) is

ax + by + cz + p = 0
Note: 1. Here ‘ p ’ is not the distance from the origin to the plane
2. In order to convert the equation ax + by + cz + p = 0 to normal form we divide the

equation by a2 + b2 + c2 i.e. the normal form becomes

a b c p
x+ y+ z+ =0
a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2

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 p
and then , d = Distance of plane from the origin to the plane = .
a2 + b2 + c2
(14) Equation of a plane passing through a given point and with given normal vector:
→
Vector Form: Equation of a plane passing through the point a and having normal to the plane as
→
vector n is given by
→ → →
( r − a ).n = 0

Cartesian Form:: Equation of a plane passing through the point ( x1, y1, z1 ) and having (a, b, c)

as the d.r. of the normal to the plane is a ( x − x1 ) + b ( y − y1 ) + c ( z − z1 ) = 0

(15) Equation of a plane passing through three non collinear points:

→ → →
Vector
→→
Form:
→
Equation of plane passing through three points A ( a ), B b and C ( c ) , where ( )
are the position vectors of three points A, B and C , is given by:
a,b and c
→ →  → → → →
(
( r − a ).  b − a  ( c − a ) = 0 )
Cartesian Form: Equation of the plane passing through the three points
A ( x1, y1, z1 ) , B ( x2 , y2 , z2 )and C ( x3 , y3, z3 ) is:

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y 1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1

(16) Intercept form of the plane: Equation of a plane having x , y and z intercept as
x y z
a,b and c respectively is given by + + =1
a b c
(17) Equation of a plane passing through the intersection of two given planes:
Vector Form: Equation of a plane passing through the intersection of two planes
→→ →→
r.n1 = d1 and r .n2 = d2 is given by
→ → →
r.(n1 + λn2 ) = d1 + λd2 , whereλ  R

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Cartesian Form: Equation of plane passing through the intersection of the two planes
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 is given by

a1x + b1 y + c1z + d1 + λ (a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 ) = 0 , where λ  R

(18) Coplanarity of two lines:

→ → → → → →
Vector Form: Two lines r = a1 + λb1 and r = a2 + λb2 will be coplanar iff they lie in a common
→ → → →
( )
plane iff b1 b2 .( a2 − a1 ) = 0 .

Cartesian Form: Two lines x − x1 = y − y1 = z − z1 and x − x2 = y − y2 = z − z2 will be coplanar

a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
iff
x2 − x 1 y2 − y 1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1 = 0
a2 b2 c2

And equation of the plane containing these two lines is:

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a1 b1 c1 = 0
a2 b2 c2

(19) Angle between two planes:

→→
Vector Form: Angle between two intersecting planes is the angle between the normal to the
planes i.e. Angle ‘θ ’ between the planes = →→
= d is given by
r.n1 d1 and r .n2
→ →
2

n .n
cosθ = 1 2
n1 n2
Cartesian Form: Angle ‘θ ’ between planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 is
given by
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
cosθ =
a 2 +b2 +c 2 a 2 +b 2 +c 2

(20) Angle between a line and a

→ → → →→
= + λ and a plane = d is given by sinθ = b.n→
plane: Vector Form: Angle ‘θ b
b .n
’between a line r a r.n

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 x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Cartesian Form: Angle ‘θ ’between a line = = and a plane
a1 b1 c1
aa1 + bb1 + cc1
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by sinθ =
a2 + b2 + c2 a 2 + b 2 + c 2

(21) Distance of a point from a line:

→ →→
Vector Form: Distance of a point a (not on the plane) from a plane r.n = p is given by
→→
r.n − p
D= →
n

Cartesian Form: Distance of a point ( x1, y1, z1 ) (not on the plane) from a plane

ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by D =
a2 + b2 + c2

Satyam Sen | PGT Maths | [email protected] Page 32

 Linear Programming
(1) Theorem 1 Let R be the feasible region (convex polygon) for a linear programming problem

and let Z = ax + by be the objective function. When Z has an optimal value (maximum or

minimum), where the variables x and y are subject to constraints described by linear inequalities,

this optimal value must occur at a corner point (vertex) of the feasible region.

(2) Theorem 2 Let R be the feasible region for a linear programming problem, and let

Z = ax + by be the objective function. If R is bounded, then the objective function Z has both a

maximum and a minimum value on R and each of these occurs at a corner point (vertex) of R.

(3) If R is unbounded, then a maximum or a minimum value of the objective function may not

exist. However, if it exists, it must occur at a corner point of R.

(4) If two corner points of the feasible region are both optimal solutions of the same type, i.e.,

both produce the same maximum or minimum, then any point on the line segment joining these

two points is also an optimal solution of the same type.

(5) Corner Point Method:

Step 1: Find the feasible region of the linear programming problem and determine its

corner points (vertices) either by inspection or by solving the two equations of the lines

intersecting at that point.

Step 2: Evaluate the objective function Z = ax + by at each corner point. Let M and m,

respectively denote the largest and smallest values of these points.

Step 3a: When the feasible region is bounded, M and m are the maximum and minimum

values of Z.

Step 3b: In case, the feasible region is unbounded, we have:

(a) M is the maximum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by ax + by > M has

no point in common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z has no maximum value.

(b) Similarly, m is the minimum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by ax + by

<m has no point in common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z has no minimum value.
Satyam Sen | PGT Maths | [email protected] Page 33
 Probability
Number of favorable outcomes in E n(E)
(1) P(E) = =
Number of possible outcomes in S n(S)

( )
(2) P A = 1 − P ( A)

(3) P ( A B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A B)

(4) If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then P ( A  B ) = 0 .

( )
(5) P A  B = P ( B ) − P ( A B )

(6) Probability of occurrence of exactly one of A and B =

P ( A) + P ( B ) − 2P ( A  B ) = P ( A B ) − P ( A  B )

(7) If A, B and C are three events, then

P ( A  B  C ) = P ( A) + P ( B) + P (C ) − P ( A  B )− P (B  C )− P ( A C )+ P ( A  B C )

(9)

(10) Conditional Probability: P ( A| B) = Probability of occurrence of A when B has already

P ( A B)
occured =
P(B)

(11) P ( A| B) = 1 − P ( A| B )

(12) Multiplication Theorem on Probability: P ( A  B) = P ( A). P ( B | A) = P ( B ) . P ( A| B )

(13) Independent events: If A and B are independent events, then P ( A  B) = P ( A ) P ( B)

(14) If A and B are independent events, then P ( A  B ) = P (at least oneof A or B ) = 1 − P ( A) P ( B )

(15) If A and B are independent events, then A and B ; A and B ; A and B are all independent.

(16) Three events A, B and C are said to be mutually independent, if:

(a) P ( A  B ) = P ( A )  P ( B ) (b) P ( B  C ) = P ( B )  P (C )

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 (c) P ( A  C ) = P ( A )  P (C ) (d) P ( A  B  C ) = P ( A )  P ( B ) P (C )

(17) Bayes’ Theorem:

If E1 , E2 , E3 ,... En are n non empty events which constitute a partition of sample space S i.e.

E1 , E2 , E3 ,... En are pair- wise disjoint and E1  E2  E3 ...  En = S and A is any event, then

P ( E | A) = P ( Ei ) P ( A| Ei )
i n
; where i = 1, 2 , 3,..., n
 P ( Ei ) P ( A| Ei )
i =1

For Example, for two events E1 and E2 , we have

P ( E1 | A) = P ( E1 ) P ( A| E1 ) and P ( E 2 | A) = P ( E2 ) P ( A| E2 )
P ( E ) P ( A| E ) + P ( E ) P ( A| E ) P ( E ) P ( A| E ) + P (E ) P ( A| E )
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2

(18) Probability Distribution: If a random variable X takes values x1 , x2 , x3 ,..., xn with respective

probabilities p1 , p2 , p3 ,..., pn , then

xn n
X : x1 x2 x3 ..... is known as probability distribution of X . Here, p =1
P( X ) :
i
p1 p2 p3 . ...... pn i =1

n
(19) Mean (Expectation) / Expected Value of Random Variable: E ( X ) = μ =  xi pi
i =1

2
n  n 
(20) Variance of Random Variable: Var ( X ) = σ 2
=x p −  x p 
2
x i i i i
i =1  i =1 

(21) Standard Deviation of a Random Variable: σ x = Var

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